Editing Counter-Reformation (section)

===Church music=== 
[[The Council of Trent]] is believed to be the apex of the Counter-Reformation's influence on Church music in the 16th century. However, the council's pronouncements on music were not the first attempt at reform. The Catholic Church had spoken out against a perceived abuse of music used in the Mass before the Council of Trent ever convened to discuss music in 1562. The manipulation of the [[Credo|Creed]] and using non-liturgical songs was addressed in 1503, and secular singing and the intelligibility of the text in the delivery of psalmody in 1492.<ref name=fellerer-haddas>{{cite journal |last1=Fellerer |first1=K. G. |last2=Hadas |first2=Moses |title=Church Music and the Council of Trent |journal=The Musical Quarterly |date=1953 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=576–594 |doi=10.1093/mq/XXXIX.4.576 |jstor=739857 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/739857 |issn=0027-4631}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611173341/http://www.jstor.org/stable/739857 |date=2016-06-11 }} </ref>{{rp|576}} The delegates at the council were just a link in the long chain of Church clergy who had pushed for a reform of the musical liturgy reaching back as far as 1322.<ref name=Manzetti330>Manzetti (1928). p. 330.</ref>

Fueling the cry for reform from many ecclesial figures was the compositional technique popular in the 15th and 16th centuries of using musical material and even the accompanying texts from other compositions such as [[motets]], [[madrigal (music)|madrigals]], and [[chansons]]. Several voices singing different texts in different languages made any of the text difficult to distinguish from the mixture of words and notes. The [[parody mass]] would then contain melodies (usually the tenor line) and words from songs that could have been, and often were, on sensual subjects.<ref name=Manzetti330/> The musical liturgy of the Church was being more and more influenced by secular tunes and styles. The Council of Paris, which met in 1528, as well as the Council of Trent were making attempts to restore the sense of sacredness to the Church setting and what was appropriate for the Mass. The councils were responding to issues of their day.<ref name=fellerer-haddas/>{{rp|580–581}}

One of the most austere moves at reform came late in 1562 when, perhaps instructed by some legates, [[Egidio Foscarari]] (bishop of Modena) and [[Gabriele Paleotti]] (archbishop of Bologna) began work on reforming religious orders and their practices involving the liturgy in their dioceses.<ref>Monson (2002). p. 20.</ref> Paleotti's reforms for convents of nuns allowed only the use of an organ,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Monson |first1=Craig A. |title=Nuns Behaving Badly: Tales of Music, Magic, Art, and Arson in the Convents of Italy |date=15 November 2010 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-53462-6 |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|32-33}} prohibited professional musicians, and banished [[polyphony|polyphonic singing]]; this was much more strict than the Trent council's eventual edicts or even those devised for the [[Missa_Papae_Marcelli#History|Palestrina legend]].<ref>Monson (2002). p. 21.</ref>

====Reforms during the 22nd session====
The Council of Trent met sporadically from December 13, 1545, to December 4, 1563, to reform many parts of the Catholic Church. 

The 22nd session required that secular elements be kept out of Mass music, keeping [[polyphony]] implicitly allowed.<ref>Monson (2002). p. 12.</ref> 

{{quote|[Bishops] shall also banish from the churches all such music which, whether by the organ or in the singing, contains things that are lascivious or impure;|source="''Decree Concerning The Things To Be Observed And Avoided In The Celebration Of Mass''", Chapter IX, Session 22, Council of Trent, 1562<ref>{{cite web |title=Twenty-Second Session of the Council of Trentw|url=https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/twentysecond-session-of-the-council-of-trent-1489 |website=EWTN Global Catholic Television Network |language=en}}</ref> }}

====Proposed removal of polyphony====
The issue of textual intelligibility did not make its way into the final edicts of the 22nd session but were only featured in preliminary debates.<ref>Monson (2002). p. 22.</ref> However Archbishop Paleotti, in his Acts (the minutes of the Council), attempted to bring to equal importance the issues of intelligibility.<ref>Monson (2002). p. 24.</ref> 

The idea that the council called to remove all polyphony from the Church is widespread, but there is no documentary evidence to support that claim. It is possible, however, that some of the Fathers had proposed such a measure.<ref>Manzetti (1928). p. 331.</ref>  The Council of Trent did not focus on the style of music but on attitudes of worship and reverence during the Mass.<ref name=fellerer-haddas/>{{rp|576}}

More severe measures had been submitted for consideration, as proposed Canon 8 of "Abuses in the Sacrifice of the Mass" during a meeting of the council on September 10, 1562.<ref name=fellerer-haddas/>{{rp|576}} The proposed Canon 8 states that "Since the sacred mysteries should be celebrated with utmost reverence, with both deepest feeling toward God alone, and with external worship that is truly suitable and becoming, so that others may be filled with devotion and called to religion: ... Everything should be regulated so that the Masses, whether they be celebrated with the plain voice or in song, with everything clearly and quickly executed, may reach the ears of the hearers and quietly penetrate their hearts. In those Masses where measured music and organ are customary, nothing profane should be intermingled, but only hymns and divine praises. If something from the divine service is sung with the organ while the service proceeds, let if first be recited in a simple, clear voice, lest the reading of the sacred words be imperceptible. But the entire manner of singing in musical modes should be calculated not to afford vain delight to the ear, but so that the words may be comprehensible to all; and thus may the hearts of the listeners be caught up into the desire for celestial harmonies and contemplation of the joys of the blessed."<ref>Monson (2002). p.9.</ref>

The emperor [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor]] has been attributed to be the "saviour of Church music" because he said polyphony ought not to be driven out of the Church. But Ferdinand was most likely an alarmist and read into the council the possibility of a total ban on polyphony.<ref>Monson (2002). p. 16.</ref>

The Canon 8 text is often quoted as the Council of Trent's decree on Church music, but that is a glaring misunderstanding of the canon; it was only a proposed decree. In fact, the delegates at the council never officially accepted canon 8 in its popular form but bishops of Granada, Coimbra, and Segovia pushed for the long statement about music to be attenuated and many other prelates of the council joined enthusiastically.<ref>Monson (2002). pp. 10–11.</ref>

=====Saviour-Legend=====
The crises regarding [[polyphony]] and intelligibility of the text and the threat that polyphony was to be removed completely, which was assumed to be coming from the council, has a very dramatic legend of resolution. The legend goes that [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]] (c. 1525/26–1594), a Church musician and choirmaster in Rome, wrote a Mass for the council delegates in order to demonstrate that a polyphonic composition could set the text in such a way that the words could be clearly understood and that was still pleasing to the ear. Palestrina's [[Pope Marcellus Mass|Missa Papae Marcelli]] (Mass for Pope Marcellus) was performed before the council and received such a welcoming reception among the delegates that they completely changed their minds and allowed polyphony to stay in use in the musical liturgy. Therefore, Palestrina came to be named the "saviour of Church polyphony". This legend, though unfounded, has long been a mainstay of histories of music.<ref>Davey, Henry. "Giovanni Pierluigi, da Palestrina", ''Proceedings of the Musical Association'', 25th Sess. (1898–1899), p. 53. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/765152 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818152524/http://www.jstor.org/stable/765152 |date=2016-08-18 }}.</ref> The saviour-myth was first spread by an account by Aggazzari and Banchieri in 1609 who said that [[Pope Marcellus II|Pope Marcellus]] was trying to replace all polyphony with plainsong.<ref name="Davey. p. 52">Davey. p. 52.</ref> Palestrina's "Missa Papae Marcelli" was indeed performed for the Pope in 1564 , after the 22nd session, while reforms were being considered for the [[Sistine Choir]].

The Pope Marcellus Mass, in short, was not important in its own day and did not help save Church polyphony.<ref>[[Carleton Sprague Smith|Smith, Carleton Sprague]] and Dinneen, William (1944). "Recent Work on Music in the Renaissance", ''Modern Philology'', Vol. 42, No. 1, p. 45. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/434466 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131230242/http://www.jstor.org/stable/434466 |date=2016-01-31 }}.</ref> What is undeniable is that despite any solid evidence of his influence during or after the Council of Trent, no figure is more qualified to represent the cause of polyphony in the Mass than Palestrina.<ref>Manzetti (1928). p. 332.</ref> [[Pope Pius IV]] upon hearing Palestrina's music would make Palestrina, by Papal Brief, the model for future generations of Catholic composers of sacred music.<ref name="Davey. p. 52"/>

====Reforms following the Council of Trent====
[[File:Catholic faith defeating heresies (Karlskirche Vienna).jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Johann Michael Rottmayr]] (1729): ''The Catholic faith defeats Protestant heresies''; part of a fresco inside [[Karlskirche]] in [[Vienna]]]]

Like his contemporary Palestrina, the Flemish composer [[Jacobus de Kerle]] (1531/32–1591) was also credited with giving a model of composition for the Council of Trent. His composition in four parts, [[Preces]], marks the "official turning point of the Counter Reformation's a cappella ideal."<ref>Smith and Dinneen (1944). p. 45.</ref> Kerle was the only ranking composer of the Netherlands to have acted in conformity with the council.<ref name=Leicht326>Leichtentritt (1944). p. 326.</ref> Another musical giant on equal standing with Palestrina, [[Orlande de Lassus|Orlando di Lasso]] (1530/32–1594) was an important figure in music history though less of a purist than Palestrina.<ref>Davey. p. 56.</ref> He expressed sympathy for the council's concerns but still showed favor for the "Parady chanson Masses."<ref name=Leicht326/>

Despite the dearth of edicts from the council regarding polyphony and textual clarity, the reforms that followed from the 22nd session filled in the gaps left by the council in stylistic areas. In the 24th session the council gave authority to "Provincial Synods" to discern provisions for Church music.<ref name=fellerer-haddas/>{{rp|576–577}} The decision to leave practical application and stylistic matters to local ecclesiastical leaders was important in shaping the future of Catholic church music.<ref>Monson (2002). p. 27.</ref> It was left then up to the local Church leaders and Church musicians to find proper application for the council's decrees.<ref name=LHL346>Lockwood (1957). p. 346.</ref>

Though originally theological and directed towards the attitudes of the musicians, the Council's decrees came to be thought of by Church musicians as a pronouncement on proper musical styles.<ref name=fellerer-haddas/>{{rp|592–593}} This understanding was most likely spread through musicians who sought to implement the council's declarations but did not read the official Tridentine pronouncements. Church musicians were probably influenced by order from their ecclesiastical patrons.<ref>Monson (2002). p. 26.</ref> Composers who reference the council's reforms in prefaces to their compositions do not adequately claim a musical basis from the council but a spiritual and religious basis of their art.<ref name=fellerer-haddas/>{{rp|576–594}}

The Cardinal Archbishop of Milan, [[Carlo Borromeo|Charles Borromeo]], was a very important figure in reforming Church music after the Council of Trent. Though Borromeo was an aide to the pope in Rome and was unable to be in Milan, he eagerly pushed for the decrees of the council to be quickly put into practice in Milan.<ref name=LHL346/> Borromeo kept in contact with his church in Milian through letters and eagerly encouraged the leaders there to implement the reforms coming from the Council of Trent. In one of his letters to his vicar in the Milan diocese, Nicolo Ormaneto of Verona, Borromeo commissioned the master of the chapel, [[Vincenzo Ruffo]] (1508–1587), to write a Mass that would make the words as easy to understand as possible. Borromeo also suggested that if Don Nicola, a composer of a more chromatic style, was in Milan he too could compose a Mass and the two be compared for textural clarity.<ref>Lockwood (1957). p. 348.</ref> Borromeo was likely involved or heard of the questions regarding textual clarity because of his request to Ruffo.

Ruffo took Borromeo's commission seriously and set out to compose in a style that presented the text so that all words would be intelligible and the textual meaning be the most important part of the composition. His approach was to move all the voices in a [[homorhythmic]] manner with no complicated rhythms, and to use dissonance very conservatively. Ruffo's approach was certainly a success for textual clarity and simplicity, but if his music was very theoretically pure it was not an artistic success despite Ruffo's attempts to bring interest to the monotonous four-part texture.<ref>Lockwood (1957). p. 362.</ref> Ruffo's compositional style which favored the text was well in line with the council's perceived concern with intelligibility. Thus the belief in the council's strong edicts regarding textual intelligibility became to characterize the development of sacred Church music.

The Council of Trent brought about other changes in music: most notably developing the [[Missa brevis]], [[Lauda (song)|Lauda]] and "Spiritual [[Madrigal (Trecento)|Madrigal]]" (Madrigali Spirituali). Additionally, the numerous [[Sequence (musical form)|sequences]] were mostly prohibited in the 1570 [[Tridentine Mass|Missal of Pius V]]. The remaining sequences were ''[[Victimae paschali laudes]]'' for [[Easter]], ''[[Veni Sancte Spiritus]]'' for [[Pentecost]], ''[[Lauda Sion Salvatorem]]'' for [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]], and ''[[Dies Irae]]'' for [[All Souls' Day|All Souls]] and for [[Requiem Mass|Masses for the Dead]].

Another reform following the Council of Trent was the publication of the 1568 ''[[Roman Breviary]]''.