Editing Pitch-accent language (section)

===Bantu languages===
The [[Bantu languages]] are a large group of about 550 languages, spread over most of southern and central Africa. [[Proto-Bantu]] is believed to have had two tones: H and L.<ref>Greenberg, J.H. (1948) [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00437956.1948.11659343 "The Tonal System of Proto-Bantu"]. WORD, 4:3, 196-208.</ref><ref>Hyman, L.M. (2017). [http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/phonlab/documents/2017/Hyman_Bantu_Tone_Overview.pdf "Bantu Tone Overview"]. ''UC Berkeley Phonetics and Phonology Lab Annual Report'' (2017)</ref> It does not appear to have had a pitch-accent system, as defined above, since words with such forms as HL, HH, LH, and LL were all found: *''káda'' "charcoal", *''cómbá'' "fish", *''nyangá'' "horn" and *''tope'' "mud". In other words, words like *''cómbá'' could have two high tones, while others had one tone or none.<ref>Hyman, L.M & Al Mtenje (1999), "Non-etymological high tones in the Chichewa verb". In ''Malilime: Malawian Journal of Linguistics'', pp. 121–2.</ref>

However, over time, processes such as [[Meeussen's rule]], by which sequences such as HHH became HLL, LHL, or LLH, tended to eliminate all but one tone in a word in many Bantu languages, making them more accent-like.<ref name="Downing, Laura 2010 p. 411"/> Thus in [[Chewa language|Chichewa]], the word for "fish" ({{lang|ny|nsómba}}) now has HL tones, exactly like the word for "charcoal" ({{lang|ny|khála}}).

Another process that makes for culminativity in some Bantu languages is the interaction between stress and tone. The penultimate syllable of a word is stressed in many Bantu languages, and some of them tend to have high tones on the penultimate syllable. For example, in [[Tumbuka language|Chitumbuka]], every phonological phrase is accented with a falling tone on the penultimate: {{lang|tum|ti-ku-phika sî:ma}} "we are cooking porridge".<ref>* Downing, Laura J. (2012). [http://www.lingref.com/cpp/acal/42/paper2764.pdf "On the (Non-)congruence of Focus and Prominence in Tumbuka"]. ''Selected Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Conference on African Linguistics'', ed. Michael R. Marlo et al., 122-133. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, p. 123.</ref> In other languages, such as [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], the high tone is attracted to the antepenultimate although the penultimate being stressed.<ref>Downing, Laura (2010). "Accent in African languages". In Harry van der Hulst, Rob Goedemans, Ellen van Zanten (eds.) ''A Survey of Word Accentual Patterns in the Languages of the World'', p. 416.</ref>

[[Luba-Kasai language|Ciluba]] and [[Ruund language|Ruund]], in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], are two Bantu languages that are interesting for their "tone reversal". Low tone is phonologically active in places that other languages of the same family have a high tone. Thus, in a word like *''muk'''í'''la'' "tail", most other Bantu languages have a high tone on the second syllable, but Chiluba has {{lang|lua|muk'''ì'''la}} and Ruund has {{lang|rnd|nocat=yes|muk'''ì'''l}}, with a low-toned accent.<ref>Nash, J.A. (1994), [https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/elanguage/sal/article/download/1296/1296-2281-1-PB.pdf "Underlying Low Tones in Ruwund"]. ''Studies in African Linguistics'' Volume 23, Number 3,1992-1994; p. 226.</ref>

====Luganda====
{{main|Luganda tones}}
[[Luganda]], a language of [[Uganda]], has some words with apparent tonal accents. They can be either high or falling (rising tones do not occur in Luganda). Falling tones are found on bimoraic syllables or word-finally:<ref>Kamoga, F.K. & Stevick, Earl (1968). [http://www.fsi-language-courses.net/languages/Luganda/Basic/FSI%20-%20Luganda%20Basic%20Course%20-%20Instructor%20and%20Student%20Text.pdf ''Luganda Basic Course'']. Foreign Service Institute, Washington; introduction.</ref>
*{{lang|lg|ens'''î'''}} "country"
*{{lang|lg|ekib'''ú'''ga}} "city"
*{{lang|lg|eddw'''â'''liro}} "hospital"

Some words, however, have two accents, which are joined in a plateau:
*{{lang|lg|K<u>'''á'''mpál'''â'''</u>}} "Kampala"

Other words are accentless:
*{{lang|lg|ekitabo}} "book"

However, accentless words are not always without tones but usually receive a default tone on all syllables except the first one or the first [[mora (linguistics)|mora]]:
*{{lang|lg|ek<u>ítábó</u>}} "book"
*{{lang|lg|Buny<u>óró</u>}} "Bunyoro" (name of region)

A double consonant at the beginning of a word counts as a mora. In such words, the first syllable also can have a default tone:
*{{lang|lg|Tt<u>óró</u>}} "Toro" (a region)

Default tones are also heard on the end of accented words if there is a gap of at least one mora after the accent (the default tones are lower in pitch than the preceding accent):
*{{lang|lg|amas'''é'''reng<u>étá</u>}} "south"
*{{lang|lg|eddw'''â'''l<u>író</u>}} "hospital"

The default tones are not always heard but disappear in certain contexts, such as if a noun is the subject of a sentence or used before a numeral:
*{{lang|lg|Mbarara kib'''ú'''ga}} "Mbarara is a city"
*{{lang|lg|ebitabo kk'''ú'''mi}} "ten books"

In some contexts, such as affirmative verb + location, or phrases with "of"), the high tone of an accent (or of a default tone) can continue in a plateau until the next accented syllable:
*{{lang|lg|mu mas<u>'''é'''réngétá g'''á''' Úg'''áń'''</u>da}} "in the south of Uganda"
*{{lang|lg|al<u>í mú Búgá'''ń'''</u>da}} "he is in Buganda"

However, the situation with verbs is more complicated since some verbal roots have inherent word accent, and the prefixes added to the verb often have an accent. Also, some tenses (such as negative and relative clause tenses) add an accent to the final syllable.

When two or three accents appear in a row in a verb,  H-H becomes H-L, and H-H-H becomes H-L-L. However, the default tones are not added on the syllables with deleted accents, which leads to forms like {{lang|lg|b'''á'''lilab<u>á</u>}} (from {{lang|lg|*b'''á'''-l'''í'''-l'''á'''ba}}) "they will see". There, not one but two low-toned syllables follow the accent.<ref>Hyman, Larry M. & Francis X. Katamba (1993). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/416415 "A new approach to tone in Luganda"], in ''Language''. 69. 1. pp.&nbsp;33–67.</ref>

Another rule is that if two accents in the same verb are not next to each other, they form a plateau. Thus, the negative tense {{lang|lg|t'''á'''gul'''â'''}} "he does not buy" is pronounced {{lang|lg|t<u>'''á'''gúl'''â'''</u>}}, with a plateau.

====Chichewa====
{{main|Chichewa tones}}
[[Chichewa]], a language widely spoken in [[Malawi]], is tonal but has accentual properties. Most Chichewa simple nouns have only one high tone, usually on one of the last three syllables.<ref>Downing, L.J. and Al Mtenje (2017), ''The Phonology of Chichewa'' (OUP), [http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198724742.001.0001/oso-9780198724742-chapter-6 Chapter 6].</ref> (See [[Chichewa tones]].)
*{{lang|ny|ch'''í'''manga}} "maize"
*{{lang|ny|chik'''ó'''ndi}} "love"
*{{lang|ny|chinangw'''á'''}} "cassava" (usually pronounced {{lang|ny|chinăngwā}}, with rising tone on the penultimate)<ref>Louw, Johan K. (1987). ''Pang'onopang'ono ndi Mtolo: Chichewa: A Practical Course''. UNISA Press.</ref>

However, many number of nouns have no high tone but are accentless. Unlike the accentless words in Luganda, however, they do not acquire any default tones but are pronounced with all the syllables low:
*{{lang|ny|chipatala}} "hospital"

A few nouns (often but not always compounds) have two high tones. If they are separated by only one syllable, they usually join in a plateau:
*{{lang|ny|chiz'''ó'''lówez'''í'''}} "habit"
*{{lang|ny|b<u>'''í'''rím'''á'''</u>nkhwe}} "chameleon"

Most verbal roots in Chichewa are accentless. However, a few verbs also have lexical accents, but they are not inherited from Proto-Bantu.<ref>Hyman, Larry M. & Al D. Mtenje (1999b). "Non-Etymological High Tones in the Chichewa Verb", ''Malilime: The Malawian Journal of Linguistics'' no.1.</ref> When there is an accent, it is always heard on the final {{lang|ny|-a}} of the verb:
*{{lang|ny|thokoz'''á'''-ni}} "give thanks (pl.)"

Prefixes and suffixes add some accents. For example, the infinitive prefix {{lang|ny|ku-}} is postaccenting, adding a tone on the following syllable, while the suffix {{lang|ny|-nso}} "again/also" is preaccenting:
*{{lang|ny|fotokoza}} "explain" (toneless)
*{{lang|ny|kuf'''ó'''tokoza}} "to explain"
*{{lang|ny|kuf'''ó'''tokoz'''á'''nso}} "to explain again"

The verbal system is complicated because overlying the verb's tones and suffixes is a series of tonal patterns that changes by tense. There are at least eight patterns for affirmative tenses and other patterns for relative clauses and negative verbs.<ref>Downing, L.J. and Al Mtenje (2017), ''The Phonology of Chichewa'' (OUP), [http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198724742.001.0001/oso-9780198724742-chapter-7 Chapter 7].</ref>

For example, the present habitual tense has tones on the first and penultimate syllables, the recent past has a tone after the tense-marker -{{lang|ny|na}}-, the subjunctive has a tone on the final syllable and the potential is toneless. The tones apply, with minor variations, to all verbs, whether the stem is long or short:
*{{lang|ny|nd'''í'''mafotok'''ó'''za}} "I (usually) explain"
*{{lang|ny|ndinaf'''ó'''tokoza}} "I explained (just now)"
*{{lang|ny|ndifotokoz'''é'''}} "I should explain"
*{{lang|ny|ndingafotokoze}} "I could explain"

Most other tones tend to be suppressed when a verb has a penultimate accent. For example, in the negative future, both the tone of the future-tense marker, {{lang|ny|-dz'''á'''-}}, and the tone of the negative marker, {{lang|ny|s'''í'''-}} (both normally high), are neutralised:
*{{lang|ny|<u>si</u>ndi<u>dza</u>fotok'''ó'''za}} "I will not explain"

Those and other processes cause most verb tenses to have only one or two high tones, which are at the beginning, the penultimate or the final of the verb stem or at a prefix or sometimes even both. That gives the impression that the tones in the resultant words are clearly accentuated.