Editing Reformation (section)

===English reformation under Henry VIII===
{{Main|English Reformation}}

[[File:1491 Henry VIII.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A round-faced bearded middle-aged man wearing a hat decorated with a large feather|''Portrait of {{nowrap|King Henry VIII}}'' (early 1530s) by [[Joos van Cleve]]]]

In England, reformist clerics such as [[Thomas Bilney]] (d. 1531) and [[Robert Barnes (martyr)|Robert Barnes]] (d. 1540) spread Luther's theology among Cambridge and Oxford scholars and students.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=284}} The young priest [[William Tyndale]] (d. 1536) translated the New Testament to English using Erasmus's [[Novum Instrumentum omne#Third edition|Latin-Greek edition]].{{sfn|Marshall|2022|pp=250–251}} By around 1535, more than 15,000 copies of his translation had been distributed in secret.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|p=181}} Tyndale's biographer [[David Daniell (author)|David Daniell]] (d. 2016) writes that the translation "gave the English language a plain prose style of the very greatest importance", and his "influence has been greater than any other writer in English".{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=299}}

The Lord Chancellor Cardinal [[Thomas Wolsey]] (d. 1530) had strong links to the Roman Curia, he was unable to achieve the [[Declaration of nullity|annulment]] of the marriage of {{nowrap|Henry VIII}} and the middle-aged [[Catherine of Aragon]] (d. 1536).{{refn|group=note|{{nowrap|Charles V}} was Catherine's nephew, and after the sack of Rome by imperial troops Pope {{nowrap|Clement VII}} did not dare to offend Charles by annulling the marriage of his aunt.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=285}}}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=284–285}} They had needed a papal dispensation to marry because Catherine was the widow of Henry's brother [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]] (d. 1502). As she had not produced a male heir, Henry became convinced that their [[incest]]uous marriage drew the [[Divine retribution|wrath of God]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=193}}

Henry charged a group of scholars including [[Thomas Cranmer]] (d. 1556) with collecting arguments in favour of the annulment. They concluded that the English kings had always had authority over the clergy, and the [[Book of Leviticus]] forbade marriage between a man and his brother's widow in all circumstances.{{sfn|Marshall|2022|p=253}} In 1530, [[English Reformation Parliament|the Parliament]] limited the jurisdiction of church courts. Wolsey had meanwhile lost Henry's favour and died, but More tried to convince Henry to abandon his plan about the annulment of his marriage. In contrast, Cranmer and Henry's new chief advisor [[Thomas Cromwell]] (d. 1540) argued that the marriage could be annulled without papal interference.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=285}} Henry who had fallen in love with Catherine's lady-in-waiting [[Anne Boleyn]] (d. 1536) decided to marry her even if the marriage could lead to a total break with the papacy.{{sfn|Marshall|2022|p=252}} During a visit in Germany, Cranmer [[Margarete Cranmer|married]] but kept his marriage in secret. On his return to England, Henry appointed him as the new [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], and the Holy See confirmed the appointment.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=194}}

The links between the English Church and the papacy were severed by Acts of Parliament.{{refn|group=note|Henry's lawyers took inspiration from the {{lang|la|[[Defensor pacis]]}} ('The Defender of Peace'), a legal treatise by [[Marsiglio of Padua]] (d. {{circa}} 1342) who argued that the Church was subordinated to the state.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=302–303}}}}{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=110}} In April 1533, the [[Ecclesiastical Appeals Act 1532|Act of Appeals]] decreed that only English courts had jurisdiction in cases of last wills, marriages and grants to the Church, emphasizing that "this realm of England is an Empire".{{sfn|Marshall|2022|p=254}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=285–286}} A special church court annulled the marriage of Henry and Catherine, and declared their only daughter [[Mary I of England|Mary]] (d. 1558) [[Legitimacy (family law)|illegitimate]] in May 1533.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|p=180}} {{nowrap|Pope Clement VII}} did not sanction the judgement and excommunicated Henry.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=302}} Ignoring the papal ban, Henry married Anne, and she gave birth to a daughter [[Elizabeth I|Elizabeth]] (d. 1603).{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=286}} Anne was a staunch supporter of the Reformation, and mainly her nominees were appointed to the vacant bishoprics between 1532 and 1536.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=194}} In 1534, the [[Act of Supremacy]] declared the king the "only supreme head of the [[Church of England]]".{{sfn|Collinson|2005|p=110}} Many of those who refused to swear a special oath of loyalty to the king—65 from about 400 defendants—were executed. More and [[John Fisher]], [[Bishop of Rochester]] (d. 1535) were among the most prominent victims.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=286}} Cromwell gradually convinced Henry that a "purification" of church life was needed. The number of [[Calendar of saints|feast days]] was reduced by about 75 per cent, pilgrimages were forbidden, [[Dissolution of the monasteries|all monasteries were dissolved]] and their property was seized by the Crown.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|p=181}}

The [[Parliament of Ireland]] passed similar acts but they could only be fully implemented in the [[The Pale|lands under direct English rule]]. Resistance against the Reformation was vigorous. In 1534, the powerful [[Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare|Lord Thomas FitzGerald]] (d. 1537) staged a revolt. Although it was crushed, thereafter Henry's government did not introduce drastic changes in the [[Church of Ireland]].{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=196–197}} In England, the dissolution of monasteries caused a popular revolt known as the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]]. The "pilgrims" demanded the dismissal of  "heretic" royal advisors but they were overcame by royalist forces.{{sfn|Marshall|2009|pp=255–256}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=287}} The principal articles of faith of the Church of England were summarized in the ''[[Six Articles (1539)|Six Articles]]'' in 1539. It reaffirmed several elements of traditional theology, such as transubstantiation and clerical celibacy.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=303}}

As Anne Boleyn did not give birth to a son, she lost Henry's favour. She was executed for adultery, and Elizabeth was declared a bastard. Henry's only son [[Edward VI|Edward]] (d. 1553) was born to Henry's third wife [[Jane Seymour]] (d. 1537). In 1543, an [[Third Succession Act|Act of Parliament]] returned Mary and Elizabeth to the line of the succession behind Edward.{{sfn|Kaufmann|2023|pp=181–182}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=195, 279}} Henry [[Rough Wooing|attacked Scotland]] to enforce the marriage of Edward and the infant [[Mary, Queen of Scots]] ({{reign|1542|1567}}) but her mother [[Mary of Guise]] (d. 1560) reinforced Scotland's [[Auld Alliance|traditional alliance]] with France.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=295–296}} The priest [[George Wishart]] (d. 1546) was the first to preach Zwinglian theology in Scotland. After he was burned for heresy, his followers, among them [[John Knox]] (d. 1572), assassinated Cardinal [[David Beaton]], [[Archbishop of St Andrews]] (d. 1546), but French troops crushed their revolt.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|pp=316–317}}