Editing Reformed Christianity (section)

==Politics and society==
[[File:Martyrs of Guernsey (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The burning of the [[Guernsey Martyrs]] during the Marian persecutions in 1556]]
[[File:Bocskai and his hajdú warriors.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Stephen Bocskai]], leader of [[Reformed Church in Hungary|Hungarian Calvinists]] in the anti-Habsburg rebellion and first Calvinist [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|prince of Transylvania]] ({{reign | 1605 | 1606}})]]
[[File:Rijnwoude 019.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A Reformed church in [[Koudekerk aan den Rijn]] in the [[Netherlands]] in the 19th century]]
[[File:Market Place at Haarlem, Looking towards Grote Kerk by Berckheyde.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Grote Kerk, Haarlem|Grote Kerk]] in [[Haarlem]] in the [[Dutch Republic]], {{Circa|1665}}]]
Calvin's concepts of God and man led to ideas which were gradually put into practice after his death, in particular in the fields of politics and society. After their fight for independence from Spain (1579), the Netherlands, under Calvinist leadership, granted asylum to religious minorities, including French [[Huguenot]]s, English [[Independent (religion)|Independents]] ([[Congregationalists]]), and [[Jews]] from Spain and Portugal. The ancestors of the philosopher [[Baruch Spinoza]] were Portuguese Jews. Aware of the trial against [[Galileo]], [[René Descartes]] lived in the Netherlands, out of reach of the [[Inquisition]], from 1628 to 1649.<ref>Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, ''Descartes, René'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band II, col. 88.</ref> [[Pierre Bayle]], a Reformed Frenchman, also felt safer in the Netherlands than in his home country. He was the first prominent philosopher who demanded tolerance for atheists. [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583–1645) was able to publish a rather liberal interpretation of the Bible and his ideas about [[natural law]] in the Netherlands.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 396–397.</ref><ref>H. Knittermeyer, ''Bayle, Pierre'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band I, col. 947.</ref> Moreover, the Calvinist Dutch authorities allowed the printing of books that could not be published elsewhere, such as Galileo's [[Two New Sciences|''Discorsi'']] (1638).<ref>[[Bertolt Brecht]], ''Leben des Galilei'', Bild 15.</ref>

Alongside the liberal development of the Netherlands came the rise of modern [[democracy]] in England and North America. In the Middle Ages, state and church had been closely connected. [[Martin Luther]]'s [[doctrine of the two kingdoms]] separated state and church in principle.<ref>Heinrich Bornkamm, ''Toleranz'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band VI, col. 941.</ref> His doctrine of the [[priesthood of all believers]] raised the laity to the same level as the clergy.<ref>B. Lohse, ''Priestertum'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 579–580.</ref> Going one step further, Calvin included elected laymen ([[church elder]]s, [[presbyters]]) in his concept of [[Ecclesiastical polity|church government]]. The Huguenots added [[synod]]s whose members were also elected by the congregations. The other Reformed churches took over this system of church self-government, which was essentially a representative democracy.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', p. 325.</ref> [[Baptists]], [[Quakers]], and [[Methodists]] are organized in a similar way. These denominations and the [[Anglican Church]] were influenced by Calvin's theology in varying degrees.<ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', pp. 329–330, 382, 422–424.</ref><ref>
{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fxbUAwAAQBAJ |title=Anglicanism and the Christian Church: Theological Resources in Historical Perspective |publisher=T & T Clark |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-567-08745-4 |editor1-last=Avis |editor1-first=Paul David Loup |editor1-link=Paul Avis |edition=2 |location=London |publication-date=2002 |page=67 |language=en-uk |chapter=The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: Anglicanism Erastian or Apostolic? An Anglican Consensus: Calvinist Episcopalians |quote=There existed also a genuine, though not slavish, theological affinity between the Anglican and continental theologies, especially the Reformed (Calvinist). A moderate Calvinist view of the 'doctrines of grace' (the interlocking sequence of predestination, election, justification, sanctification, final perseverance, glorification) was, we may say, the norm. |access-date=29 January 2020}}
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In another factor in the rise of democracy in the Anglo-American world, Calvin favored a mixture of democracy and aristocracy as the best form of government ([[mixed government]]). He appreciated the advantages of democracy.<ref>Jan Weerda, ''Calvin'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', 3. Auflage (1958), Stuttgart, Germany, col. 210.</ref> His political thought aimed to safeguard the rights and freedoms of ordinary men and women. In order to minimize the misuse of political power he suggested dividing it among several institutions in a system of checks and balances ([[separation of powers]]).{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} Finally, Calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against God they should be put down. In this way, he and his followers stood in the vanguard of resistance to political [[absolute monarchy|absolutism]] and furthered the cause of democracy.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), ''History of Religion in the United States'', Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, p. 10.</ref> The [[Congregationalists]] who founded [[Plymouth Colony]] (1620) and [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] (1628) were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God.<ref>M. Schmidt, ''Pilgerväter'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 384.</ref><ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', p. 18.</ref> Enjoying self-rule, they practiced separation of powers.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.histarch.uiuc.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html |title= Plymouth Colony Legal Structure |publisher= Histarch.uiuc.edu |date= 14 December 2007 |access-date= 5 December 2013 |archive-date= 29 April 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120429000512/http://www.histarch.uiuc.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Allen |last1=Weinstein |author-link1=Allen Weinstein |first2=David |last2=Rubel |year=2002 |title=The Story of America: Freedom and Crisis from Settlement to Superpower |publisher=[[DK Publishing]], Inc. |location=New York |isbn=0-7894-8903-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/storyofamericafr00wein/page/56 56–62] |url=https://archive.org/details/storyofamericafr00wein/page/56}}</ref> [[Rhode Island]], [[Connecticut]], and [[Pennsylvania]], founded by [[Roger Williams]], [[Thomas Hooker]], and [[William Penn]], respectively, combined democratic government with a limited [[freedom of religion]] that did not extend to Catholics (Congregationalism being the established, tax-supported religion in Connecticut).<ref>Catholic Encyclopedia: "Connecticut". New Advent. Retrieved 2017-07-07.</ref> These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including [[Jews]].<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in America'', pp. 74–76, 99–117.</ref><ref>Hans Fantel (1974), ''William Penn: Apostle of Dissent'', William Morrow and Company, New York.</ref><ref>Edwin S. Gaustad (1999), ''Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America'', Judson Press, Valley Forge.</ref>

In [[England]], Baptists [[Thomas Helwys]] ({{circa}} 1575–{{circa}} 1616), and [[John Smyth (Baptist minister)|John Smyth]] ({{circa}} 1554–{{circa |1612}}) influenced the liberal political thought of the Presbyterian poet and politician [[John Milton]] (1608–1674) and of the philosopher [[John Locke]] (1632–1704),{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} who in turn had both a strong impact on the political development in their home country ([[English Civil War]] of 1642–1651, [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688) as well as in North America.<ref>G. Müller-Schwefe, ''Milton, John'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band IV, col. 954–955.</ref><ref>Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', p. 398.</ref> The ideological basis of the [[American Revolution]] was largely provided by the radical [[Whigs (British political party)|Whigs]], who had been inspired by Milton, Locke, [[James Harrington (author)|James Harrington]] (1611–1677), [[Algernon Sidney]] (1623–1683), and other thinkers. The Whigs' "perceptions of politics attracted widespread support in America because they revived the traditional concerns of a Protestantism that had always verged on [[Puritanism]]".<ref>{{cite book |first= Robert |last= Middlekauff |author-link= Robert Middlekauff |year= 2005 |title= The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 |edition= Revised and Enlarged |publisher= Oxford University Press |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-19-531588-2 |pages= 52, 136}}</ref> The [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the [[United States Constitution]] and (American) [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]] initiated a tradition of human and civil rights that continued in the French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] and the constitutions of numerous countries around the world, e.g. Latin America, Japan, India, Germany, and other European countries. It is also echoed in the [[United Nations Charter]] and the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]].<ref>Douglas K. Stevenson (1987), ''American Life and Institutions'', Stuttgart, Germany, p. 34.</ref>

In the 19th century, churches based on or influenced by Calvin's theology became deeply involved in social reforms, e.g. the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolition of slavery]] ([[William Wilberforce]], [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], [[Abraham Lincoln]], and others), [[women suffrage]], and [[prison reform]]s.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 353–375.</ref><ref>M. Schmidt, ''Kongregationalismus'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band III, col. 1769–1771.</ref> Members of these churches formed [[co-operatives]] to help the impoverished masses.<ref>Wilhelm Dietrich, ''Genossenschaften'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', 3. Auflage (1958), col. 411–412.</ref> The founders of the [[Red Cross Movement]], including [[Henry Dunant]], were Reformed Christians. Their movement also initiated the [[Geneva Conventions]].<ref>Ulrich Scheuner, ''Genfer Konventionen'', in ''Evangelisches Soziallexikon'', 3. Auflage, col. 407–408.</ref><ref>R. Pfister, ''Schweiz'', in ''Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart'', 3. Auflage, Band V, col. 1614–1615.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dromi |first1=Shai M. |url=https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo46479924.html |title=Above the fray: The Red Cross and the making of the humanitarian NGO sector |date=2020 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-68010-1 |location=Chicago |page=45 |language=en-us}}</ref>

Others view Calvinist influence as not always being solely positive. The [[Boers]] and [[Afrikaner Calvinists]] combined ideas from Calvinism and [[Kuyperian]] theology to justify [[apartheid]] in South Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Swart|first1= Ignatius|year= 2012|title= Welfare, Religion and Gender in Post-apartheid South Africa: Constructing a South-North Dialogue|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oXP7i6rx1ZwC|publisher= African Sun Media|page= 326|access-date = 18 October 2016
|isbn= 978-1-920338-68-8}}</ref> As late as 1974 the majority of the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa was convinced that their theological stances (including the story of the Tower of Babel) could justify apartheid.{{sfn|Weisse|Anthonissen|2004|pp= 124–126}} In 1990 the Dutch Reformed Church document ''Church and Society'' maintained that although they were changing their stance on apartheid, they believed that within apartheid and under God's sovereign guidance, "...everything was not without significance, but was of service to the Kingdom of God."{{sfn|Weisse|Anthonissen|2004|p= 131}} These views were not universal and were condemned by many Calvinists outside South Africa. Pressure from both outside and inside the Dutch Reformed Calvinist church helped reverse apartheid in South Africa. <ref>{{Cite journal |author-last=Strauss |author-first=Piet J. |date=July 16, 2018 |title=Johan Heyns and critique in the Dutch Reformed Church against apartheid: The moderator a prophet? |url=https://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0259-94222018000300002|journal=HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies|volume=74|number=3|doi=10.4102/hts.v74i3.4965}}</ref>

Throughout the world, the Reformed churches operate hospitals, homes for handicapped or elderly people, and educational institutions on all levels. For example, American Congregationalists founded [[Harvard University]] (1636), [[Yale University]] (1701), and about a dozen other colleges.<ref>Clifton E. Olmstead, ''History of Religion in the United States'', pp. 80, 89, 257.</ref> A particular stream of influence of Calvinism concerns art. Visual art cemented society in the first modern nation state, the Netherlands, and also Neo-Calvinism put much weight on this aspect of life. [[Hans Rookmaaker]] is the most prolific example. In literature the non-fiction of [[Marilynne Robinson]]
argues for  the modernity of Calvin's thinking, calling him a humanist scholar (p.&nbsp;174, The Death of Adam).