Editing Strategic management (section)

==Strategy as learning==
{{See also|Organizational learning}}

=== Learning organization ===
In 1990, [[Peter Senge]], who had collaborated with [[Arie de Geus]] at [[Shell plc|Dutch Shell]], popularized de Geus' notion of the "[[learning organization]]".<ref name="Geus 2014">{{cite journal | last=Geus | first=Arie de | title=The Living Company | journal=Harvard Business Review | date=2014-08-01 | url=https://hbr.org/1997/03/the-living-company | access-date=2022-03-29}}</ref> The theory is that gathering and analyzing information is a necessary requirement for business success in the information age. To do this, Senge claimed that an organization would need to be structured such that:<ref>Senge, Peter. ''The Fifth Discipline'', Doubleday, New York, 1990; (also Century, London, 1990).</ref>

* People can continuously expand their capacity to learn and be productive.
* New patterns of thinking are nurtured.
* Collective aspirations are encouraged.
* People are encouraged to see the "whole picture" together.

Senge identified five disciplines of a learning organization. They are:

* Personal responsibility, self-reliance, and mastery – We accept that we are the masters of our own destiny. We make decisions and live with the consequences of them. When a problem needs to be fixed, or an opportunity exploited, we take the initiative to learn the required skills to get it done.
* Mental models – We need to explore our personal mental models to understand the subtle effect they have on our behaviour.
* Shared vision – The vision of where we want to be in the future is discussed and communicated to all. It provides guidance and energy for the journey ahead.
* Team learning – We learn together in teams. This involves a shift from "a spirit of advocacy to a spirit of enquiry".
* [[Systems thinking]] – We look at the whole rather than the parts. This is what Senge calls the "Fifth discipline". It is the glue that integrates the other four into a coherent strategy. For an alternative approach to the "learning organization", see Garratt, B. (1987).

[[Geoffrey Moore]] (1991) and R. Frank and P. Cook<ref>Frank, R. and Cook, P. ''The Winner Take All Society'', Free Press, New York, 1995.</ref> also detected a shift in the nature of competition. Markets driven by technical standards or by "network effects" can give the dominant firm a near-monopoly.<ref>[http://www.cs.cornell.edu/home/kleinber/networks-book/networks-book-ch17.pdf Network Effects]</ref> The same is true of networked industries in which [[interoperability]] requires compatibility between users. Examples include [[Internet Explorer]]'s and [[Amazon.com|Amazon's]] early dominance of their respective industries. IE's later decline shows that such dominance may be only temporary.

Moore showed how firms could attain this enviable position by using E.M. Rogers' five stage [[diffusion (business)|adoption process]] and focusing on one group of customers at a time, using each group as a base for reaching the next group. The most difficult step is making the transition between introduction and mass acceptance. (See [[Crossing the Chasm]]). If successful a firm can create a bandwagon effect in which the momentum builds and its product becomes a ''de facto'' standard.

=== Integrated view to learning ===
Bolisani & Bratianu (2017) <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bolisani |first1=Ettore |last2=Bratianu |first2=Constantin |date=2017-04-03 |title=Knowledge strategy planning: an integrated approach to manage uncertainty, turbulence, and dynamics |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jkm-02-2016-0071 |journal=Journal of Knowledge Management |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=233–253 |doi=10.1108/jkm-02-2016-0071 |issn=1367-3270|url-access=subscription }}</ref> have defined knowledge strategy as an integration of rational thinking and dynamic learning. Rational planning contains a three-step process where the first step is to collect information, the second step is to analyze the information and the third step is to formulate goals and plans based on information. Emergent planning also contains three steps to the opposite direction starting from practical experience, what is analyzed in the second step, and then formulated to a strategy in the third step. These two approaches are combined to the “integrated view” with the Bolisani and Bratianu research implications. To start the planning process for knowledge and KM strategy creation, company can prepare a preliminary plan with the basis of rational analysis from internal or external environments. While creating rational and predictive plans, company can similarly utilize practical adapted knowledge for example learning from the ground. The idea behind the integrated view is to combine the general visions of knowledge strategy with both the current practical understanding and future ideas. This model will move the decision-making process in a more interactive and co-creative direction.