Editing Etruscan language (section)

===Nouns===
Etruscan substantives had five cases—[[Nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[genitive case|genitive]], [[dative case|dative]], and [[locative case|locative]]—and two numbers: singular and a plural. Not all five cases are attested for every word. Nouns merge the nominative and accusative; pronouns do not generally merge these. Gender appears in personal names (masculine and feminine) and in pronouns (animate and inanimate); otherwise, it is not marked.{{sfn|Bonfante|1990|p=20}}

Unlike the [[Indo-European languages]], Etruscan noun endings were more [[agglutinative]], with some nouns bearing two or three agglutinated suffixes. For example, where Latin would have distinct nominative plural and dative plural endings, Etruscan would suffix the case ending to a plural marker: Latin nominative singular {{Lang|la|fili-us}}, 'son', plural {{Lang|la|fili-i}}, dative plural {{Lang|la|fili-is}}, but Etruscan {{Transliteration|ett|clan}}, {{Transliteration|ett|clen-ar}} and {{Transliteration|ett|clen-ar-aśi}}.{{sfn|Bonfante|1990|p=19}} <!--Need a different set of example as this one shows similar way of adding suffix in both Latin and Etruscan language 's' added to 'i' and 'aśi' added to 'ar'--> Moreover, Etruscan nouns could bear multiple suffixes from the case paradigm alone: that is, Etruscan exhibited ''[[Suffixaufnahme]]''. Pallottino calls this phenomenon "morphological redetermination", which he defines as "the typical tendency ... to redetermine the syntactical function of the form by the superposition of suffixes."<ref>{{cite book|last=Pallottino |first=Massimo |date=1955 |title=The Etruscans |url=https://archive.org/details/etruscans00pall |url-access=registration |publication-place=Harmondsworth, Middlesex |publisher= Penguin Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/etruscans00pall/page/263 263] |lccn=56000053 |oclc=1034661909}}</ref> His example is {{Transliteration|ett|Uni-al-θi}}, 'in the sanctuary of Juno', where'' -al'' is a genitive ending and ''-θi'' a locative.

Steinbauer says of Etruscan, "there can be more than one marker ... to design a case, and ... the same marker can occur for more than one case."<ref>''[http://www.etruskisch.de/pgs/gr.htm Etruscan Grammar: Summary]'' at Steinbauer's website.</ref>

; [[Nominative case|Nominative]]/[[accusative case]] : No distinction is made between nominative and accusative of nouns. The nominative/accusative could act as the subject of transitive and intransitive verbs, but also as the object of transitive verbs, and it was also used to indicate duration of time (e.g., {{Transliteration|ett|ci avil}} 'for three years').<ref name="Language, Alphabet, and Linguistic Affiliation"/>

: Common nouns use the unmarked root. Names of males may end in ''-e'': {{Transliteration|ett|Hercle}} (Hercules), {{Transliteration|ett|Achle}} (Achilles), {{Transliteration|ett|Tite}} (Titus); of females, in ''-i'', ''-a'', or ''-u'': {{Transliteration|ett|Uni}} (Juno), {{Transliteration|ett|Menrva}} (Minerva), or {{Transliteration|ett|Zipu}}. Names of gods may end in ''-s'': {{Transliteration|ett|Fufluns}}'','' {{Transliteration|ett|Tins}}; or they may be the unmarked stem ending in a vowel or consonant: {{Transliteration|ett|Aplu}} (Apollo), {{Transliteration|ett|Paχa}} (Bacchus), or {{Transliteration|ett|Turan}}.
; [[Genitive case]] : The genitive case had two main functions in Etruscan: the usual meaning of possession (along with other forms of dependency such as family relations), and it could also mark the recipient (indirect object) in votive inscriptions.<ref name="Language, Alphabet, and Linguistic Affiliation"/> 
: Pallottino defines two declensions based on whether the genitive ends in ''-s/-ś'' or ''-l''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pallottino |first=Massimo |date=1955 |title=The Etruscans |url=https://archive.org/details/etruscans00pall |url-access=registration |publication-place=Harmondsworth, Middlesex |publisher= Penguin Books |page=[https://archive.org/details/etruscans00pall/page/264 264] |lccn=56000053 |oclc=1034661909}}</ref> In the ''-s'' group are most noun stems ending in a vowel or a consonant: {{Transliteration|ett|fler}}''/''{{Transliteration|ett|fler-ś}}'','' {{Transliteration|ett|ramtha}}''/''{{Transliteration|ett|ramtha-ś}}. In the second are names of females ending in ''i'' and names of males that end in ''s'', ''th'' or ''n'': {{Transliteration|ett|ati}}''/''{{Transliteration|ett|ati-al}}'','' {{Transliteration|ett|Laris}}''/''{{Transliteration|ett|Laris-al}}'','' {{Transliteration|ett|Arnθ}}''/''{{Transliteration|ett|Arnθ-al}}. After ''l'' or ''r'' ''-us'' instead of ''-s'' appears: {{Transliteration|ett|Vel}}''/''{{Transliteration|ett|Vel-us}}. Otherwise, a vowel might be placed before the ending: {{Transliteration|ett|Arnθ-al}} instead of {{Transliteration|ett|Arnθ-l}}. 
:According to Rex Wallace, "A few nouns could be inflected with both types of endings without any difference in meaning. Consider, for example, the genitives {{Lang|ett-latn|cilθσ|italic=no}} 'fortress (?)' and {{Lang|ett-latn|cilθl|italic=no}}. Why this should be the case is not clear."<ref name="Language, Alphabet, and Linguistic Affiliation"/>
: There is a [[patronymic]] ending: ''-sa'' or ''-isa'', 'son of', but the ordinary genitive might serve that purpose. In the genitive case, morphological redetermination becomes elaborate. Given two male names, ''Vel'' and ''Avle'', {{Transliteration|ett|Vel Avleś}} means 'Vel son of Avle'. This expression in the genitive become ''Vel-uś Avles-la''. Pallottino's example of a three-suffix form is {{Transliteration|ett|Arnθ-al-iśa-la}}.
; [[Dative case]] : Besides the usual function as indirect object ('to/for'), this case could be used as the agent ('by') in passive clauses, and occasionally as a locative.<ref name="Language, Alphabet, and Linguistic Affiliation"/> The dative ending is ''-si'': {{Transliteration|ett|Tita}}''/''{{Transliteration|ett|Tita-si}}.{{sfn|Bonfante|1990|p=20}} (Wallace uses the term 'pertinentive' for this case.)<ref name="Language, Alphabet, and Linguistic Affiliation"/>
; [[Locative case]] : The locative ending is -θi: {{Transliteration|ett|Tarχna}}''/''{{Transliteration|ett|Tarχna-l-θi}}.{{sfn|Bonfante|1990|p=[https://archive.org/details/etruscan0000bonf/page/41 41]}}
; [[Plural number]] : Nouns semantically [+human] had the plural marking ''-ar'' : {{Transliteration|ett|clan}}, 'son', as {{Transliteration|ett|clenar}}, 'sons'. This shows both [[I-mutation|umlaut]] and an ending ''-ar''. Plurals for cases other than nominative are made by agglutinating the case ending on {{Transliteration|ett|clenar}}. Nouns semantically [-human] used the plural ''-chve'' or one of its variants: ''-cva'' or ''-va'': {{Transliteration|ett|avil}} 'year', {{Transliteration|ett|avil-χva}} 'years'; {{Transliteration|ett|zusle}} '{{Transliteration|ett|zusle}} (pig?)‐offering', {{Transliteration|ett|zusle-va}} '''zusle''‐offerings'.<ref name="Language, Alphabet, and Linguistic Affiliation"/>