Editing German language (section)

==Grammar==
{{Main|German grammar}}

German is a [[fusional language]] with a moderate degree of [[inflection]], with three [[grammatical gender]]s; as such, there can be a large number of words derived from the same root.

===Noun inflection===
{| class = "wikitable" style = "float: right; text-align: center"
|+ Declension of the [[Standard German]] definite article
|Case
! scope = "col" | {{abbr|Masc.|Masculine}}
! scope = "col" | {{abbr|Neu.|Neuter}}
! scope = "col" | {{abbr|Fem.|Feminine}}
! scope = "col" | Plural
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Nominative]]
| style = "background-color: lavender" | {{lang|de|der}}
| style = "background-color: paleGreen; border-style: solid solid none solid" |{{lang|de|das}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: solid none none solid" | {{lang|de|die}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: solid solid none none" | {{lang|de|die}}
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Dative]]
| style = "background-color: peachPuff; border-style: solid none solid solid" | {{lang|de|dem}}
| style = "background-color: peachPuff; border-style: solid solid solid none" | {{lang|de|dem}}
| style = "background-color: lavender; border-style: solid solid none solid" | {{lang|de|der}}
| style = "background-color: silver" | {{lang|de|den}}
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Genitive]]
| style = "background-color: paleTurquoise; border-style: solid none solid solid" | {{lang|de|des}}
| style = "background-color: paleTurquoise; border-style: solid solid solid none" | {{lang|de|des}}
| style = "background-color: lavender; border-style: none none solid solid" | {{lang|de|der}}
| style = "background-color: lavender; border-style: solid solid solid none" | {{lang|de|der}}
|-
! scope = "row" | [[Accusative]]
| style = "background-color: silver" | {{lang|de|den}}
| style = "background-color: paleGreen; border-style: none solid solid solid" | {{lang|de|das}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: none none solid solid" | {{lang|de|die}}
| style = "background-color: coral; border-style: none solid solid none" | {{lang|de|die}}
|}
{{further|Grammatical gender in German}}
[[German nouns]] inflect by case, gender, and number:
* four [[grammatical case|cases]]: [[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[genitive case|genitive]], and [[dative case|dative]].
* three [[grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine, and neuter. Word endings sometimes reveal grammatical gender: for instance, nouns ending in {{lang|de|-ung}} (-ing), {{lang|de|-schaft}} (-ship), {{lang|de|-keit}} or {{lang|de|heit}} (-hood, -ness) are feminine, nouns ending in {{lang|de|-chen}} or {{lang|de|-lein}} ([[diminutive]] forms) are neuter and nouns ending in {{lang|de|-ismus}} ([[-ism]]) are masculine. Others are more variable, sometimes depending on the region in which the language is spoken. And some endings are not restricted to one gender, for example: {{lang|de|-er}} ([[agent noun|-er]]), such as {{lang|de|Feier}} (feminine), celebration, party; {{lang|de|Arbeiter}} (masculine), labourer; and {{lang|de|Gewitter}} (neuter), thunderstorm.
* two numbers: singular and plural.

This degree of inflection is considerably less than in [[Old High German]] and other old [[Indo-European languages]] such as [[Latin]], [[Ancient Greek]], and [[Sanskrit]], and it is also somewhat less than, for instance, [[Old English]], modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], or Russian. The three genders have collapsed in the plural. With four cases and three genders plus plural, there are 16 permutations of case and gender/number of the article (not the nouns), but there are only six forms of the [[article (grammar)|definite article]], which together cover all 16 permutations. In nouns, inflection for case is required in the singular for strong masculine and neuter nouns only in the genitive and in the dative (only in fixed or archaic expressions), and even this is losing ground to substitutes in informal speech.{{sfn|Barbour|Stevenson|1990|pp=160–3}} Weak masculine nouns share a common case ending for genitive, dative, and accusative in the singular. Feminine nouns are not declined in the singular. The plural has an inflection for the dative. In total, seven inflectional endings (not counting plural markers) exist in German: {{lang|de|-s, -es, -n, -ns, -en, -ens, -e}}.

=== Compounding ===
Like the other Germanic languages, German forms noun [[compound (linguistics)|compounds]] in which the first noun modifies the category given by the second: {{lang|de|Hundehütte}} ("dog hut"; specifically: "dog kennel"). Unlike English, whose newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written "open" with separating spaces, German (like some other Germanic languages) nearly always uses the "closed" form without spaces, for example: {{lang|de|Baumhaus}} ("tree house"). Like English, German allows arbitrarily long compounds in theory (see also [[English compounds]]). The longest German word verified to be actually in (albeit very limited) use is {{lang|de|[[Rinderkennzeichnungs- und Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz|Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz]]}}, which, literally translated, is "beef labelling supervision duties assignment law" [from {{lang|de|Rind}} (cattle), {{lang|de|Fleisch}} (meat), {{lang|de|Etikettierung(s)}} (labelling), {{lang|de|Überwachung(s)}} (supervision), {{lang|de|Aufgaben}} (duties), {{lang|de|Übertragung(s)}} (assignment), {{lang|de|Gesetz}} (law)]. However, examples like this are perceived by native speakers as excessively bureaucratic, stylistically awkward, or even satirical. On the other hand, even this compound could be expanded by any native speaker.

===Verb inflection===
{{Main|German verbs}}

The inflection of standard German verbs includes:
* Two main [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] classes: [[Germanic weak verb|weak]] and [[Germanic strong verb|strong]] (as in English). Additionally, there is a third class, known as mixed verbs, whose conjugation combines features of both the strong and weak patterns.
* Three [[grammatical person|persons]]: first, second and third.
* Two [[grammatical number|numbers]]: singular and plural.
* Three [[grammatical mood|moods]]: [[realis mood|indicative]], [[imperative mood|imperative]] and [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] (in addition to [[infinitive]]).
* Two [[voice (grammar)|voices]]: active and passive. The passive voice uses auxiliary verbs and is divisible into static and dynamic. Static forms show a constant state and use the verb ''to be'' (sein). Dynamic forms show an action and use the verb ''to become'' (werden).
* Two [[grammatical tense|tenses]] without auxiliary verbs ([[present tense|present]] and [[preterite]]) and four tenses constructed with auxiliary verbs ([[perfect (grammar)|perfect]], [[pluperfect]], [[future tense|future]] and [[future perfect]]).
* The distinction between [[grammatical aspect]]s is rendered by combined use of the subjunctive or preterite marking so the plain indicative voice uses neither of those two markers; the subjunctive by itself often conveys reported speech; subjunctive plus preterite marks the conditional state; and the preterite alone shows either plain indicative (in the past), or functions as a (literal) alternative for either reported speech or the conditional state of the verb, when necessary for clarity.
* The distinction between perfect and [[continuous and progressive aspects|progressive aspect]] is and has, at every stage of development, been a productive category of the older language and in nearly all documented dialects, but strangely enough it is now rigorously excluded from written usage in its present normalised form.
* Disambiguation of completed vs. uncompleted forms is widely observed and regularly generated by common prefixes (''{{Wikt-lang|de|blicken}}'' [to look], ''{{Wikt-lang|de|erblicken}}'' [to see&nbsp;– unrelated form: {{Wikt-lang|de|sehen}}]).

====Verb prefixes====
The meaning of basic verbs can be expanded and sometimes radically changed through the use of a number of prefixes. Some prefixes have a specific meaning; the prefix '''{{lang|de|zer-}}''' refers to destruction, as in {{lang|de|'''zer'''reißen}} (to tear apart), {{lang|de|'''zer'''brechen}} (to break apart), {{lang|de|'''zer'''schneiden}} (to cut apart). Other prefixes have only the vaguest meaning in themselves; '''{{lang|de|ver-}}''' is found in a number of verbs with a large variety of meanings, as in {{lang|de|'''ver'''suchen}} (to try) from {{lang|de|suchen}} (to seek), {{lang|de|'''ver'''nehmen}} (to interrogate) from {{lang|de|nehmen}} (to take), {{lang|de|'''ver'''teilen}} (to distribute) from {{lang|de|teilen}} (to share), {{lang|de|'''ver'''stehen}} (to understand) from {{lang|de|stehen}} (to stand).

Other examples include the following:
{{lang|de|haften}} (to stick), {{lang|de|'''ver'''haften}} (to detain); {{lang|de|kaufen}} (to buy), {{lang|de|'''ver'''kaufen}} (to sell); {{lang|de|hören}} (to hear), {{lang|de|'''auf'''hören}} (to cease); {{lang|de|fahren}} (to drive), {{lang|de|'''er'''fahren}} (to experience).

Many [[German verbs]] have a separable prefix, often with an adverbial function. In [[finite verb]] forms, it is split off and moved to the end of the clause and is hence considered by some to be a "resultative particle". For example, {{lang|de|mitgehen}}, meaning "to go along", would be split, giving {{lang|de|Gehen Sie mit?}} (Literal: "Go you with?"; Idiomatic: "Are you going along?").

Indeed, several [[parenthetical referencing|parenthetical]] clauses may occur between the prefix of a finite verb and its complement (ankommen = to arrive, er kam an = he arrived, er ist angekommen = he has arrived):
: {{lang|de|Er '''kam''' am Freitagabend nach einem harten Arbeitstag und dem üblichen Ärger, der ihn schon seit Jahren immer wieder an seinem Arbeitsplatz plagt, mit fraglicher Freude auf ein Mahl, das seine Frau ihm, wie er hoffte, bereits aufgetischt hatte, endlich zu Hause '''an'''.}}
A selectively literal translation of this example to illustrate the point might look like this:
: He "came" on Friday evening, after a hard day at work and the usual annoyances that had time and again been troubling him for years now at his workplace, with questionable joy, to a meal which, as he hoped, his wife had already put on the table, finally home "to".

===Word order===
German word order is generally with the [[V2 word order]] restriction and also with the [[SOV word order]] restriction for subordinate as well as for main [[clause]]s including an [[auxiliary verb]]. As to subordinate clauses, all verb forms occur at the very end. For [[yes–no questions]], exclamations, and wishes, the [[finite verb]] usually has the first position.

German requires a verbal element (main verb, modal verb or auxiliary verb as finite verb) to appear [[V2 word order|second in the sentence]]. The verb is preceded by the [[topic–comment|topic]] of the sentence or an [[adverbial]] of flexible length. The element in focus appears at the end of the sentence. For a sentence without an auxiliary, these are several possibilities:

: {{lang|de|Der alte Mann gab mir gestern das Buch.}} (The old man gave me yesterday the book; normal [[subject-verb-object]] order)
: {{lang|de|Das Buch gab mir gestern der alte Mann.}} (The book gave [to] me yesterday the old man)
: {{lang|de|Das Buch gab der alte Mann mir gestern.}} (The book gave the old man [to] me yesterday)
: {{lang|de|Das Buch gab mir der alte Mann gestern.}} (The book gave [to] me the old man yesterday)
: {{lang|de|Gestern gab mir der alte Mann das Buch.}} (Yesterday gave [to] me the old man the book; normal order)
: {{lang|de|Gestern gab der alte Mann mir das Buch.}} (Yesterday gave the old man [to] me the book; [[verb-subject-object]] order)
: {{lang|de|Mir gab der alte Mann das Buch gestern.}} ([To] me gave the old man the book yesterday (entailing: as for someone else, it was another date))

While the subject typically preceeds the object, the position of a noun in a German sentence has no bearing on its being a subject, an object or another argument. In a [[sentence (linguistics)|declarative sentence]] in English, if the subject does not occur before the predicate, the sentence could well be misunderstood.

However, German's flexible word order allows one to emphasise specific words:

Normal word order:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat gestern um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro.}}
:: The manager entered yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand his office.

Second variant in normal word order:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat sein Büro gestern um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand.}}
:: The manager entered his office yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand.
: This variant accentuates the time specification and that he carried an umbrella.

Object in front:
:: {{lang|de|Sein Büro betrat der Direktor gestern um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand.}}
:: His office entered the manager yesterday at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand.
: The object {{lang|de|Sein Büro}} (his office) is thus highlighted; it could be the topic of the next sentence.

Adverb of time in front:
:: {{lang|de|Gestern betrat der Direktor um 10 Uhr mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro. (aber heute ohne Schirm)}}
:: Yesterday entered the manager at 10 o'clock with an umbrella in the hand his office. (but today without umbrella)

Both time expressions in front:
:: {{lang|de|Gestern um 10 Uhr betrat der Direktor mit einem Schirm in der Hand sein Büro}}.
:: Yesterday at 10 o'clock entered the manager with an umbrella in the hand his office.
: The full-time specification {{lang|de|Gestern um 10 Uhr}} is highlighted.

Another possibility:
:: {{lang|de|Gestern um 10 Uhr betrat der Direktor sein Büro mit einem Schirm in der Hand}}.
:: Yesterday at 10 o'clock entered the manager his office with an umbrella in the hand.
: Both the time specification and the fact he carried an umbrella are accentuated.

Swapped adverbs:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat mit einem Schirm in der Hand gestern um 10 Uhr sein Büro.}}
:: The manager entered with an umbrella in the hand yesterday at 10 o'clock his office.
: The phrase {{lang|de|mit einem Schirm in der Hand}} is highlighted.

Swapped object:
:: {{lang|de|Der Direktor betrat gestern um 10 Uhr sein Büro mit einem Schirm in der Hand.}}
:: The manager entered yesterday at 10 o'clock his office with an umbrella in the hand.
: The time specification and the object {{lang|de|sein Büro}} (his office) are lightly accentuated.

The flexible word order also allows one to use language "tools" (such as [[poetic meter]] and [[figures of speech]]) more freely.

====Auxiliary verbs====
When an [[auxiliary verb]] is present in the main clause, it appears in second position, and the main verb appears at the end. This occurs notably in the creation of the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect tense]]. Many word orders are still possible:

:{{lang|de|Der alte Mann hat mir heute das Buch gegeben.}} (The old man has [to] me today the book given.)
:{{lang|de|Das Buch hat der alte Mann mir heute gegeben.}} ('''''The book''''' has the old man [to] me today given.)
:{{lang|de|Heute hat der alte Mann mir das Buch gegeben.}} ('''''Today''''' has the old man [to] me the book given.)

The main verb may appear in first position to put stress on the action itself. The [[auxiliary verb]] is still in second position.

:{{lang|de|Gegeben hat mir der alte Mann das Buch heute.}} ('''''Given''''' has me the old man the book '''today'''.) The bare fact that the book has been given is emphasized, as well as 'today'.

====Modal verbs====
Sentences using [[modal verb]]s as finite verbs place the infinitive at the end. For example, the English sentence "Should he go home?" would be rearranged in German to say "Should he (to) home go?" ({{lang|de|Soll er nach Hause gehen?}}). Thus, in sentences with several subordinate or relative clauses, the infinitives are clustered at the end. Compare the similar clustering of prepositions in the following (highly contrived) English sentence: "What did you bring that book that I do not like to be read to out of up for?"

====Multiple infinitives====
German subordinate clauses have all verbs clustered at the end, with the finite verb normally in the final position of the cluster. Given that auxiliaries encode [[future]], [[passive voice|passive]], [[modality (semiotics)|modality]], and the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]], very long chains of verbs at the end of the sentence can occur. In these constructions, the past participle formed with {{lang|de|ge-}} is often replaced by the infinitive.

: ''{{lang|de|Man nimmt an, dass der Deserteur wohl erschossen}}<sub>V</sub> {{lang|de|worden}}<sub>psv</sub> {{lang|de|sein}}<sub>perf</sub> {{lang|de|soll}}<sub>mod</sub>''
: One suspects that the deserter probably shot become be should.
: ("It is suspected that the deserter probably had been shot")
: {{lang|de|Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlüssel hatte machen lassen}}
: He knew not that the agent a picklock had make let
: {{lang|de|Er wusste nicht, dass der Agent einen Nachschlüssel machen lassen hatte}}
: He knew not that the agent a picklock make let had
: ("He did not know that the agent had had a picklock made")

The order at the end of such strings is subject to variation, but the second one in the last example is unusual.