Editing History of the Internet (section)

==Internet governance==
{{Main|Internet governance}}
As a [[global network|globally distributed network]] of voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks, the Internet operates without a central governing body. Each constituent network chooses the technologies and protocols it deploys from the technical standards that are developed by the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF).<ref>{{cite ietf|title=Internet Architecture|work=IAB Architectural Principles of the Internet |rfc=1958}}</ref> However, successful interoperation of many networks requires certain parameters that must be common throughout the network. For managing such parameters, the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) oversees the allocation and assignment of various technical identifiers.<ref name="DDN NIC">{{cite ietf|title=DDN NIC |work=IAB Recommended Policy on Distributing Internet Identifier Assignment |rfc=1174}}</ref> In addition, the [[Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]] (ICANN) provides oversight and coordination for the two principal [[name space]]s in the Internet, the [[IP address|Internet Protocol address space]] and the [[Domain Name System]].

===NIC, InterNIC, IANA, and ICANN===
The IANA function was originally performed by USC Information Sciences Institute (ISI), and it delegated portions of this responsibility with respect to numeric network and autonomous system identifiers to the [[Network Information Center]] (NIC) at [[Stanford Research Institute]] (SRI International) in [[Menlo Park, California]]. ISI's [[Jonathan Postel]] managed the IANA, served as RFC Editor and performed other key roles until his death in 1998.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.internethalloffame.org/2012/10/15/remembering-jon-postel-and-day-he-redirected-internet/|title=Remembering Jon Postel — And the Day He Redirected the Internet|first=Internet|last=Society|date=October 15, 2012}}</ref>

As the early ARPANET grew, hosts were referred to by names, and a HOSTS.TXT file would be distributed from [[SRI International]] to each host on the network. As the network grew, this became cumbersome. A technical solution came in the form of the [[Domain Name System]], created by ISI's [[Paul Mockapetris]] in 1983.<ref>Elizabeth Feinler, IEEE Annals [3B2-9] man2011030074.3d 29/7/011 11:54 Page 74</ref> The Defense Data Network—Network Information Center (DDN-NIC) at SRI handled all registration services, including the [[top-level domain]]s (TLDs) of [[.mil]], [[.gov]], [[.edu]], [[.org]], [[.net]], [[.com]] and [[.us]], [[root nameserver]] administration and Internet number assignments under a [[United States Department of Defense]] contract.<ref name="DDN NIC"/> In 1991, the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) awarded the administration and maintenance of DDN-NIC (managed by SRI up until this point) to Government Systems, Inc., who subcontracted it to the small private-sector [[Network Solutions|Network Solutions, Inc.]]<ref>{{cite ietf|title=GSI-Network Solutions |work=TRANSITION OF NIC SERVICES |rfc=1261}}</ref><ref>{{cite court |url=http://lw.bna.com/lw/19980428/972412.htm |litigants=William THOMAS, et al., Plaintiffs, v. NETWORK SOLUTIONS, INC., and National Science Foundation Defendants. Civ. No. 97-2412 (TFH), Sec. I.A. |court=D.D.C. |vol=2 |reporter=F.Supp.2d |opinion=22 |date=April 6, 1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222065509/http://lw.bna.com/lw/19980428/972412.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The increasing cultural diversity of the Internet also posed administrative challenges for centralized management of the IP addresses. In October 1992, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) published RFC 1366,<ref>{{cite ietf |title=RFC 1366 |work=Guidelines for Management of IP Address Space |rfc=1366}}</ref> which described the "growth of the Internet and its increasing globalization" and set out the basis for an evolution of the IP registry process, based on a regionally distributed registry model. This document stressed the need for a single Internet number registry to exist in each geographical region of the world (which would be of "continental dimensions"). Registries would be "unbiased and widely recognized by network providers and subscribers" within their region.
The RIPE Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) was established as the first RIR in May 1992. The second RIR, the Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC), was established in Tokyo in 1993, as a pilot project of the Asia Pacific Networking Group.<ref name="Cisco">{{cite web|url=http://www.cisco.com/web/about/ac123/ac147/archived_issues/ipj_4-4/regional_internet_registries.html|title=Development of the Regional Internet Registry System|publisher=Cisco|access-date=April 10, 2012|archive-date=January 1, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025735/http://www.cisco.com/web/about/ac123/ac147/archived_issues/ipj_4-4/regional_internet_registries.html}}</ref>

Since at this point in history most of the growth on the Internet was coming from non-military sources, it was decided that the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] would no longer fund registration services outside of the .mil TLD. In 1993 the U.S. [[National Science Foundation]], after a competitive bidding process in 1992, created the [[InterNIC]] to manage the allocations of addresses and management of the address databases, and awarded the contract to three organizations. Registration Services would be provided by [[Network Solutions]]; Directory and Database Services would be provided by [[AT&T Corporation|AT&T]]; and Information Services would be provided by [[General Atomics]].<ref>{{cite mailing list|title=NIS Manager Award Announced |url=https://www.ripe.net/ripe/mail/archives/lir-wg/1993-January/000028.html | date=5 January 1993 |mailing-list=lir-wg }}</ref>

Over time, after consultation with the IANA, the [[IETF]], [[RIPE NCC]], [[APNIC]], and the [[Federal Networking Council]] (FNC), the decision was made to separate the management of domain names from the management of IP numbers.<ref name="Cisco"/> Following the examples of RIPE NCC and APNIC, it was recommended that management of IP address space then administered by the InterNIC should be under the control of those that use it, specifically the ISPs, end-user organizations, corporate entities, universities, and individuals. As a result, the [[American Registry for Internet Numbers]] (ARIN) was established as in December 1997, as an independent, not-for-profit corporation by direction of the [[National Science Foundation]] and became the third Regional Internet Registry.<ref>{{cite web|title=Internet Moves Toward Privatization|url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=102819|work=www.nsf.gov|date=24 June 1997}}</ref>

In 1998, both the IANA and remaining DNS-related InterNIC functions were reorganized under the control of [[ICANN]], a California [[non-profit corporation]] contracted by the [[United States Department of Commerce]] to manage a number of Internet-related tasks. As these tasks involved technical coordination for two principal Internet name spaces (DNS names and IP addresses) created by the IETF, ICANN also signed a memorandum of understanding with the [[Internet Architecture Board|IAB]] to define the technical work to be carried out by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.<ref>{{cite ietf|title=RFC 2860 |work=Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Technical Work of the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority |rfc=2860}}</ref> The management of Internet address space remained with the regional Internet registries, which collectively were defined as a supporting organization within the ICANN structure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icann.org/en/about/governance/bylaws|title=ICANN Bylaws|access-date=April 10, 2012}}</ref> ICANN provides central coordination for the DNS system, including policy coordination for the split registry / registrar system, with competition among registry service providers to serve each top-level-domain and multiple competing registrars offering DNS services to end-users.

===Internet Engineering Task Force===
The [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF) is the largest and most visible of several loosely related ad-hoc groups that provide technical direction for the Internet, including the [[Internet Architecture Board]] (IAB), the [[Internet Engineering Steering Group]] (IESG), and the [[Internet Research Task Force]] (IRTF).

The IETF is a loosely self-organized group of international volunteers who contribute to the engineering and evolution of Internet technologies. It is the principal body engaged in the development of new Internet standard specifications. Much of the work of the IETF is organized into ''Working Groups''. Standardization efforts of the Working Groups are often adopted by the Internet community, but the IETF does not control or patrol the Internet.<ref name="FYI17">{{cite web |title=The Tao of IETF: A Novice's Guide to the Internet Engineering Task Force |url=https://www.ietf.org/tao.html |author=P. Hoffman |author2=S. Harris |website=ietf.org |date=September 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite ietf |title=A Mission Statement for the IETF |author=H. Alvestrand |rfc=3935 |date=October 2004}}</ref>

The IETF grew out of quarterly meetings with U.S. government-funded researchers, starting in January 1986. Non-government representatives were invited by the fourth IETF meeting in October 1986. The concept of Working Groups was introduced at the fifth meeting in February 1987. The seventh meeting in July 1987 was the first meeting with more than one hundred attendees. In 1992, the [[Internet Society]], a professional membership society, was formed and IETF began to operate under it as an independent international standards body. The first IETF meeting outside of the United States was held in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, in July 1993. Today, the IETF meets three times per year and attendance has been as high as ca. 2,000 participants. Typically one in three IETF meetings are held in Europe or Asia. The number of non-US attendees is typically ca. 50%, even at meetings held in the United States.<ref name=FYI17/>

The IETF is not a legal entity, has no governing board, no members, and no dues. The closest status resembling membership is being on an IETF or Working Group mailing list. IETF volunteers come from all over the world and from many different parts of the Internet community. The IETF works closely with and under the supervision of the [[Internet Engineering Steering Group]] (IESG)<ref>{{cite ietf |title=An IESG charter |author=H. Alvestrand |rfc=3710 |date=February 2004}}</ref> and the [[Internet Architecture Board]] (IAB).<ref>{{cite ietf |title=Charter of the Internet Architecture Board (IAB) |author=B. Carpenter |rfc= 2850 |date=May 2000}}</ref> The [[Internet Research Task Force]] (IRTF) and the [[Internet Research Steering Group]] (IRSG), peer activities to the IETF and IESG under the general supervision of the IAB, focus on longer-term research issues.<ref name=FYI17/><ref>{{cite ietf |title=IAB Thoughts on the Role of the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) |author=S. Floyd |author2=V. Paxson |author3=A. Falk |rfc=4440 |date=March 2006}}</ref>

====RFCs====
[[Request for Comments|RFCs]] are the main documentation for the work of the IAB, IESG, IETF, and IRTF.<ref>{{Cite web |title=RFCs |url=https://www.ietf.org/standards/rfcs/ |access-date=2023-11-04 |website=IETF |language=en}}</ref> Originally intended as requests for comments, RFC 1, "Host Software", was written by Steve Crocker at [[UCLA]] in April 1969. These technical memos documented aspects of ARPANET development. They were edited by [[Jon Postel]], the first [[RFC Editor]].<ref name=FYI17/><ref name="RFC4844">{{cite ietf |title=The RFC Series and RFC Editor |author=L. Daigle |rfc=4844 |date=July 2007}}</ref>

RFCs cover a wide range of information from proposed standards, draft standards, full standards, best practices, experimental protocols, history, and other informational topics.<ref>{{cite ietf |title=Not All RFCs are Standards |author=C. Huitema |author2=J. Postel |author3=S. Crocker |rfc=1796 |date= April 1995}}</ref> RFCs can be written by individuals or informal groups of individuals, but many are the product of a more formal Working Group. Drafts are submitted to the IESG either by individuals or by the Working Group Chair. An RFC Editor, appointed by the IAB, separate from IANA, and working in conjunction with the IESG, receives drafts from the IESG and edits, formats, and publishes them. Once an RFC is published, it is never revised. If the standard it describes changes or its information becomes obsolete, the revised standard or updated information will be re-published as a new RFC that "obsoletes" the original.<ref name=FYI17/><ref name=RFC4844/>

===The Internet Society===
The [[Internet Society]] (ISOC) is an international, nonprofit organization founded during 1992 "to assure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world". With offices near Washington, DC, US, and in Geneva, Switzerland, ISOC has a membership base comprising more than 80 organizational and more than 50,000 individual members. Members also form "chapters" based on either common geographical location or special interests. There are currently more than 90 chapters around the world.<ref name="isoc.org">{{Cite web|url=https://www.internetsociety.org/|title=Build, Promote, and Defend the Internet|website=Internet Society}}</ref>

ISOC provides financial and organizational support to and promotes the work of the standards settings bodies for which it is the organizational home: the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF), the [[Internet Architecture Board]] (IAB), the [[Internet Engineering Steering Group]] (IESG), and the [[Internet Research Task Force]] (IRTF). ISOC also promotes understanding and appreciation of the [[Internet model]] of open, transparent processes and consensus-based decision-making.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.internetsociety.org/issues/open-internet-standards/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213013231/https://www.isoc.org/standards/|title=Open Internet Standards|archive-date=December 13, 2011}}</ref>

===Globalization and Internet governance in the 21st century===
Since the 1990s, the [[Internet governance|Internet's governance]] and organization has been of global importance to governments, commerce, civil society, and individuals. The organizations which held control of certain technical aspects of the Internet were the successors of the old ARPANET oversight and the current decision-makers in the day-to-day technical aspects of the network. While recognized as the administrators of certain aspects of the Internet, their roles and their decision-making authority are limited and subject to increasing international scrutiny and increasing objections. These objections have led to the ICANN removing themselves from relationships with first the [[University of Southern California]] in 2000,<ref>{{cite web | title=USC/ICANN Transition Agreement | website=icann.org | date=14 May 2000 | url=http://www.icann.org/en/general/usc-icann-transition-agreement.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005055337/http://www.icann.org/en/general/usc-icann-transition-agreement.htm | archive-date=October 5, 2008  | access-date=October 15, 2009 }}</ref> and in September 2009 gaining autonomy from the US government by the ending of its longstanding agreements, although some contractual obligations with the U.S. Department of Commerce continued.<ref>{{cite web | last=Anderson | first=Nate | title=ICANN cuts cord to US government, gets broader oversight | website=Ars Technica | date=30 September 2009 | url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2009/09/icann-cuts-cord-to-us-government-gets-broader-oversight/ |quote=ICANN, which oversees the Internet's domain name system, is a private nonprofit that reports to the US Department of Commerce. Under a new agreement, that relationship will change, and ICANN's accountability goes global}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB125432179022552705|title=U.S. Eases Grip Over Web Body: Move Addresses Criticisms as Internet Usage Becomes More Global|first=Christopher|last=Rhoads|date=October 2, 2009|work=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704471504574446942665685208|title=The U.S. Abandons the Internet: Multilateral governance of the domain name system risks censorship and repression|first1=Jeremy|last1=Rabkin|first2=Jeffrey|last2=Eisenach|date=October 2, 2009|work=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref> Finally, on October 1, 2016, ICANN ended its contract with the United States Department of Commerce National Telecommunications and Information Administration (<abbr>NTIA</abbr>), allowing oversight to pass to the global Internet community.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.icann.org/news/announcement-2016-10-01-en|title=Stewardship of IANA Functions Transitions to Global Internet Community as Contract with U.S. Government Ends – ICANN|website=www.icann.org|access-date=2016-10-01}}</ref>

The IETF, with financial and organizational support from the Internet Society, continues to serve as the Internet's ad-hoc standards body and issues [[Request for Comments]].

In November 2005, the [[World Summit on the Information Society]], held in [[Tunis]], called for an [[Internet Governance Forum]] (IGF) to be convened by [[United Nations Secretary General]]. The IGF opened an ongoing, non-binding conversation among stakeholders representing governments, the private sector, civil society, and the technical and academic communities about the future of Internet governance. The first IGF meeting was held in October/November 2006 with follow up meetings annually thereafter.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mueller |first=Milton L. |title=Networks and States: The Global Politics of Internet Governance |url=https://archive.org/details/networksstatesgl00muel |url-access=limited |year=2010 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-01459-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/networksstatesgl00muel/page/n67 67] }}</ref> Since WSIS, the term "Internet governance" has been broadened beyond narrow technical concerns to include a wider range of Internet-related policy issues.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mueller |first=Milton L. |title=''Networks and States: The Global Politics of Internet Governance'' |url=https://archive.org/details/networksstatesgl00muel |url-access=limited |year=2010 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-01459-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/networksstatesgl00muel/page/n79 79]–80 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=DeNardis | first=Laura | editor-first1=William H. | editor-last1=Dutton | title=Oxford Handbooks Online | chapter=The Emerging Field of Internet Governance | publisher=Oxford University Press | date=12 March 2013 | doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199589074.013.0026}}</ref>

[[Tim Berners-Lee]], inventor of the web, was becoming concerned about threats to the web's future and in November 2009 at the IGF in Washington DC launched the [[World Wide Web Foundation]] (WWWF) to campaign to make the web a safe and empowering tool for the good of humanity with access to all.<ref name="BBC20080915">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7613201.stm|title=Warning sounded on web's future|date=September 15, 2008|via=news.bbc.co.uk|access-date=November 26, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916065056/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7613201.stm|archive-date=September 16, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ARST20091117">{{Cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2009/11/tim-berners-lee-launches-www-foundation-at-igf-2009.ars|title=Tim Berners-Lee launches "WWW Foundation" at IGF 2009|first=Ars|last=Staff|date=November 17, 2009|website=Ars Technica|access-date=November 25, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110416094117/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2009/11/tim-berners-lee-launches-www-foundation-at-igf-2009.ars|archive-date=April 16, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> In November 2019 at the IGF in Berlin, Berners-Lee and the WWWF went on to launch the ''[[Contract for the Web]]'', a campaign initiative to persuade governments, companies and citizens to commit to nine principles to stop "misuse" with the warning "If we don't act now - and act together - to prevent the web being misused by those who want to exploit, divide and undermine, we are at risk of squandering" (its potential for good).<ref name="CNA20191125">{{Cite news|last=CNA Staff|date=25 November 2019|title=Web inventor Tim Berners-Lee launches plan to stop Internet abuse|url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/web-inventor-tim-berners-lee-launches-plan-stop-internet-abuse-12123526|access-date=25 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191125193812/https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/world/web-inventor-tim-berners-lee-launches-plan-stop-internet-abuse-12123526|archive-date=25 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>