Editing Prosthesis (section)

==Prosthetic enhancement==
{{Further|Powered exoskeleton#Research}}
[[File:Flickr - The U.S. Army - U.S. Army World Class Athlete Program Paralympic.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Sgt. Jerrod Fields works out at the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Chula Vista, California.]]
In addition to the standard artificial limb for everyday use, many amputees or [[congenital]] patients have special limbs and devices to aid in the participation of sports and recreational activities.

Within science fiction, and, more recently, within the [[scientific community]], there has been consideration given to using advanced prostheses to replace healthy body parts with artificial mechanisms and systems to improve function. The morality and desirability of such technologies are being debated by [[transhumanists]], other ethicists, and others in general.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.practicalethics.ox.ac.uk/ht/enhancement/main |title=Enhancements, Oxford Uehiro Centre for Practical Ethics |publisher=Practicalethics.ox.ac.uk |access-date=2016-12-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228205218/http://www.practicalethics.ox.ac.uk/ht/enhancement/main |archive-date=2016-12-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0010052 |pmid=15630464 |title=Is It Ethical to Use Enhancement Technologies to Make Us Better than Well? |journal=PLOS Medicine |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=e52 |year=2004 |last1=Caplan |first1=Arthur |last2=Elliott |first2=Carl |pmc=539045 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199587810.001.0001 |title=Beyond Humanity? |year=2011 |last1=Buchanan |first1=Allen E. |isbn=9780199587810}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8519.2012.01964.x|title=Beyond Humanity? The Ethics of Biomedical Enhancement – by Allen Buchanan|journal=Bioethics|volume=26|issue=7|pages=391–392|year=2012|last1=Anomaly|first1=Jonny}}</ref> Body parts such as legs, arms, hands, feet, and others can be replaced.

The first experiment with a healthy individual appears to have been that by the British scientist [[Kevin Warwick]]. In 2002, an [[implant (medicine)|implant]] was interfaced directly into Warwick's nervous system. The [[electrode array]], which contained around a hundred [[electrode]]s, was placed in the [[median nerve]]. The signals produced were detailed enough that a [[robot arm]] was able to mimic the actions of Warwick's own arm and provide a form of touch feedback again via the implant.<ref name="Warwick, K 1373">{{cite journal |vauthors=Warwick K, Gasson M, Hutt B, Goodhew I, Kyberd P, Andrews B, Teddy P, Shad A | year = 2003 | title = The Application of Implant Technology for Cybernetic Systems | journal = Archives of Neurology | volume = 60 | issue = 10| pages = 1369–1373 | doi=10.1001/archneur.60.10.1369 | pmid=14568806}}</ref>

The [[DEKA (company)|DEKA]] company of [[Dean Kamen]] developed the "Luke arm", an advanced [[Neuroprosthetics#Motor prosthetics for conscious control of movement|nerve-controlled prosthetic]]. Clinical trials began in 2008,<ref name="spectrum.ieee.org">{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/dean-kamens-luke-arm-prosthesis-readies-for-clinical-trials |author=Adee, Sarah |date=2008-02-01|title=Dean Kamen's "Luke Arm" Prosthesis Readies for Clinical Trials |work=IEEE Spectrum }}</ref> with FDA approval in 2014 and commercial manufacturing by the [[Universal Instruments Corporation]] expected in 2017. The price offered at retail by Mobius Bionics is expected to be around $100,000.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.meddeviceonline.com/doc/darpa-s-mind-controlled-arm-prosthesis-preps-for-commercial-launch-0001 | title=DARPA's Mind-Controlled Arm Prosthesis Preps for Commercial Launch}}</ref>

Further research in April 2019, there have been improvements towards prosthetic function and comfort of 3D-printed personalized wearable systems. Instead of manual integration after printing, integrating electronic sensors at the intersection between a prosthetic and the wearer's tissue can gather information such as pressure across wearer's tissue, that can help improve further iteration of these types of prosthetic.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scitecheuropa.eu/3d-printed-prosthetics/94078/|title=Wearable system interfaces: How can electronic sensors be integrated into improved 3D printed prosthetics?|last=Garner|first=Courtney|date=2019-04-05|website=SciTech Europa|language=en-GB|access-date=2019-05-06}}</ref>

===Oscar Pistorius===
In early 2008, [[Oscar Pistorius]], the "Blade Runner" of South Africa, was briefly ruled ineligible to compete in the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] because his transtibial prosthesis limbs were said to give him an unfair advantage over runners who had ankles. One researcher found that his limbs used twenty-five percent less energy than those of a non-disabled runner moving at the same speed. This ruling was overturned on appeal, with the appellate court stating that the overall set of advantages and disadvantages of Pistorius' limbs had not been considered.

Pistorius did not qualify for the South African team for the Olympics, but went on to sweep the [[2008 Summer Paralympics]], and has been ruled eligible to qualify for any future Olympics.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}} He qualified for the 2011 World Championship in South Korea and reached the semi-final where he ended last timewise, he was 14th in the first round, his personal best at 400m would have given him 5th place in the finals. At the [[2012 Summer Olympics]] in London, Pistorius became the first amputee runner to compete at an Olympic Games.<ref>{{citation|author=Robert Klemko|title=Oscar Pistorius makes history, leaves without medal|url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/london/track/story/2012-08-10/4x400-relay-oscar-pistorius-south-afric/56946372/1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811151754/http://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/london/track/story/2012-08-10/4x400-relay-oscar-pistorius-south-afric/56946372/1|archive-date=11 August 2012|newspaper=USA Today|date=10 August 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> He ran in the [[athletics at the 2012 Summer Olympics&nbsp;– Men's 400 metres|400&nbsp;metres race]] semi-finals,<ref name="BBC 20120804">{{citation|title=Oscar Pistorius makes Olympic history in 400m at London 2012|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18911479|publisher=BBC Sport|date=4 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{citation|author=Bill Chappell|title=Oscar Pistorius makes Olympic history in 400 meters, and moves on to semi-final|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thetorch/2012/08/04/158126486/oscar-pistorius-makes-olympic-history-in-400-meters-and-moves-on-to-semifinal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120804164207/http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetorch/2012/08/04/158126486/oscar-pistorius-makes-olympic-history-in-400-meters-and-moves-on-to-semifinal|archive-date=4 August 2012|publisher=[[NPR]]|date=4 August 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Men's 400m&nbsp;– semi-finals|url=http://www.london2012.com/athletics/event/men-400m/phase=atm004200/index.html|access-date=4 August 2012|work=london2012.com|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121216094759/http://www.london2012.com/athletics/event/men-400m/phase=atm004200/index.html|archive-date=16 December 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and the [[athletics at the 2012 Summer Olympics&nbsp;– Men's 4 × 400 metres relay|4&nbsp;×&nbsp;400&nbsp;metres relay race]] finals.<ref>{{citation|title=Oscar Pistorius, South African 4×400m relay team finish 8th as Bahamas wins gold|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/10/oscar-pistorius-south-africa-relay-4x400-olympics_n_1765596.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120810224029/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/10/oscar-pistorius-south-africa-relay-4x400-olympics_n_1765596.html|archive-date=10 August 2012|newspaper=Huffington Post|date=10 August 2012|first=Chris|last=Greenberg|url-status=dead}}</ref> He also competed in 5 events in the [[2012 Summer Paralympics]] in London.<ref>{{cite news|title=Hawking, Pistorius open London's Paralympics: Wheelchair-bound physicist Stephen Hawking challenged athletes to 'look to the stars' as he helped open a record-setting Paralympics Games that will run for 11 days in near sold-out venues|url=http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/news/hawking-pistorius-open-londons-paralympics-194425194.html|agency= Reuters |date=29 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120902025159/http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/news/hawking-pistorius-open-londons-paralympics-194425194.html|archive-date=2 September 2012|work=[[Yahoo! Sports]]|url-status=dead}}</ref>