Editing Architecture of India (section)

== Arches ==
Indian architecture has utilized both false and [[true arch]]es in its architecture, but structural arches have been essentially absent from Hindu temple architecture at all periods.

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| caption3 = Post and lintel construction (Trabeate style) of Airavatesvara Temple, India
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| caption1 = Dropped keystone, King Edward VII Arch, Victoria Memorial
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=== Corbel arches ===
Corbel arches in India date from [[Indus Valley civilisation]] which used corbel arch to construct drains and have been evidenced at Mohenjo daro, Harappa, and Dholavira.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdeSBQAAQBAJ&q=corbel+arch+mohenjo+daro&pg=PA28|title=Across the Pacific: From Ancient Asia to Precolombian America|last=Lemoy|first=Christian|date=2011|publisher=Christian Lemoy|isbn=9781599425825|language=en}}</ref>

The oldest arches surviving in Indian architecture are the [[gavaksha]] or "[[chaitya]] arches" found in ancient rock-cut architecture, and agreed to be copied from versions in wood which have all perished. These often terminate a whole ceiling with a semi-circular top; wooden roofs made in this way can be seen in carved depictions of cities and palaces. A number of small early constructed temples have such roofs, using [[corbel]]led construction, as well as an [[apse|apsidal]] plan; the [[Trivikrama Temple]] at [[Ter, Maharashtra]] is an example. The arch shape survived into constructed Indian architecture, not as an opening in a wall but as a [[blind niche]] projection from a wall, that bears only its own weight. In this form it became a very common and important decorative motif on Hindu temples.<ref>Rowland, 44–45, 64–65, 113, 218–219; Harle, 48, 175</ref>

The "fundamental architectural principle of the constructed Hindu temple is always formulated in the trabeate order", that is to say using [[post and lintel]] systems with vertical and horizontal members.<ref>Michell, 82</ref>  According to George Michell: "Never was the principle of the arch with radiating components, such as voussoirs and keystones, employed in Hindu structures, either in India or in other parts of Asia. It was not so much that Hindu architects were ignorant of these techniques, but rather that conformance to tradition and adherence to precedents were firm cultural attitudes".<ref>Michell, 84</ref> Harle describes the true arch as "not unknown, but almost never employed by Hindu builders",<ref>Harle, 530, note 3 to chapter 30. See also 489, note 10</ref> and its use as "rare, but widely dispersed".<ref>Harle, 493, note 5</ref>
[[File:KITLV 88083 - Unknown - Mahabodhi stupa in the temple complex at the Buddhagaya Lilajan River in British India - 1897.tif|left|thumb|Pointed arch, Mahabodhi temple, 6th–7th century CE, Late-Gupta period. Photo 1897.]]

=== True Arch ===
The 19th century archaeologist [[Alexander Cunningham]], head of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], at first believed that due to the total absence of arches in Hindu temples, they were alien to Indian architecture, but several pre-Islamic examples bear testimony to their existence, as explained by him in the following manner:<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mahâbodhi, or the great Buddhist temple under the Bodhi tree at Buddha-Gaya|last=Cunningham|first=Alexander|publisher=W. H. Allen|year=1892|location=London|pages=85}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=Formerly it was the settled belief of all European enquirers that the ancient Hindus were ignorant of the Arch. This belief no doubt arose from the total absence of arches in any of the Hindu Temples. Thirty years ago I shared this belief with Mr. Fergusson, when I argued that the presence of arches in the great Buddhist Temple at Buddha Gaya proved that the building could not have been erected before the Muhammadan conquest. But during my late employment in the Archeological Survey of India several buildings of undoubted antiquity were discovered in which both vaults and arches formed part of the original construction.|sign=[[Alexander Cunningham]]|source=Mahâbodhi, or the great Buddhist temple under the Bodhi tree at Buddha-Gaya, 1892}} Archaeological evidences indicate that wedge shaped bricks and construction of wells in the Indus valley civilization and although no true arches have been discovered as of yet, these bricks would have been suitable in the construction of true arches.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SzS6CwAAQBAJ&q=indus+valley+civilization+wells+true+arch&pg=PA58|title=The Indus: Lost Civilizations|last=Robinson|first=Andrew|date=2015-11-15|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=9781780235417|language=en}}</ref> True arch in India dates from [[Nanda Empire|pre Mauryan Nanda]] period from the 5th century BC. Arch fragment discovered by archaeologist [[K. P. Jayaswal]] from an arch with [[Brahmi script|Brahmi]] inscribed on it,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.20579/page/n109|title=Proceedinds And Transactions Of The Second Oriental Conference (1923)|date=1923|pages=86|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Calcutta Review Vol.10, No.1-3(april-june)1924|year=1924|pages=140}}</ref> or 1st - 2nd century CE when it first appeared in [[Kosambi|Kausambi]] palace architecture from [[Kushan Empire|Kushana]] period.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dubey|first=Lal Mani|title=Some Observations on the Vesara School of Hindu Architecture|date=1978|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44139449|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=39|pages=1000–1006|jstor=44139449|issn=2249-1937|access-date=12 June 2021|archive-date=12 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612072821/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44139449|url-status=live}}</ref> Arches present at [[Vishnu]] temples at [[Deo Barunark|Deo Baranark]], [[Amb Temples|Amb]] and [[Kafir Kot]] temples from [[Hindu Shahi]] period and Hindu temple of [[Bhitargaon]] bear testimony to the use arches in the Hindu temple architecture.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1N95DwAAQBAJ&q=amb+temple+true+arch&pg=PA4|title=Temples of the Indus: Studies in the Hindu Architecture of Ancient Pakistan|last=Meister|first=Michael W.|date=2010-07-26|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004190115|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/f/019pho000001003u00466000.html|title=Front view of a ruined temple, with sculptured slabs in foreground, Deo Baranark|last=Wright|first=Colin|website=Bl.uk|access-date=2019-04-23|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225010021/http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/f/019pho000001003u00466000.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.europeana.eu/portal/record/92037/_http___www_bl_uk_onlinegallery_onlineex_apac_photocoll_g_zoomify58580_html.html|title=General view of ruined temple at Deo Baranark|website=Europeana Collections|language=en|access-date=2019-04-23}}</ref>
[[File:20191203 Diwan-i-Khas, Red Fort, Delhi 0507 6368 DxO.jpg|thumb|Arches of Diwan-i-Khas, Red Fort, Delhi]]
Although Alexander Cunningham has persisted in the notion that the Buddhist [[Mahabodhi Temple]]'s pointed arch was added later during a Burmese restoration, given its predominant use in Islamic architecture, scholars such as Huu Phuoc Le have contested this assumption based on analysis that relieving arches could not have been added without destroying the entire temple structure, which is dated to 6th–7th century CE. Hence the pointed and relieving arches much have formed part of the original building dating from the pre-Islamic periods in proper.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Buddhist Architecture|last=Le|first=Huu Phuoc|publisher=Grafikol|year=2010|isbn=978-0984404308|location=USA|pages=246–247}}</ref><ref>Rowland, 163-164</ref>  Moreover, pointed arches vaulted entrances have been noted in Bhitargaon temple and Kausambi Palace architecture as well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241/|title=Group of Monuments at Hampi|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190214052910/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/241/|archive-date=2019-02-14|access-date=2019-10-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=District Gazetteers Of The United Provinces Of Agra And Oudh Cawnpore Vol Xix|pages=190}}</ref>

=== Trabeate style ===
Trabeate style is one of the main style of architecture of that time
* Lintel use in this style.
* shikar also prevail in this.
* No use of minar.
* Material sand stone.

=== Arcuate style ===
Arcuate style is also one of the main style for architecture.
* In this lintel is replaced by arch.
* There is also use of dome.
* Concept of minar is also there.
* Material, brick, lime and mortar used for making of dome (Wood was primarily not used because of the geography).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.focuscivil.online/introduction-of-medieval-period-architecture/|title=Introduction of Medieval Period Architecture|website=focuscivil.online|access-date=9 April 2021|archive-date=4 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204074534/https://www.focuscivil.online/introduction-of-medieval-period-architecture/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Torana ===
[[File:Nova Toran Temple , Khor ,Neemuch Nimach near vikram Cement Campus (20).jpg|thumb|[[Nav Toran Temple]], [[Neemuch]], Madhya Pradesh]]
'''Torana''', also referred to as '''vandanamalikas''',<ref name=tor10>Parul Pandya Dhar (2010): ''The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture''. New Delhi: D K Printworld. {{ISBN|978-8124605349}}.</ref> is a free-standing ornamental or arched gateway for ceremonial purposes seen in the [[Hindu architecture|Hindu]], [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]] architecture of the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Southeast Asia]] and parts of [[East Asia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085631|title=Toraṇa {{!}} Grove Art|year=2003|language=en|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T085631|access-date=2018-08-08|last1=Hardy|first1=Adam|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4|archive-date=13 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113014230/https://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000085631|url-status=live}}</ref> Chinese [[paifang]] gateways, Japanese [[torii]] gateways,<ref name=tor4>{{cite book |author=Albert Henry Longhurst |title=The Story of the Stūpa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17 |year=1992 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-0160-4 |page=17 |access-date=12 June 2021 |archive-date=22 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022223518/https://books.google.com/books?id=gs1sFlMGy2AC&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=tor5>{{cite book|title=China's old dwellings|author=Ronald G. Knapp|publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]]|year=2000|page=85|isbn=0-8248-2214-5}}</ref><ref name=tor6>{{cite book|title=Frommer's China|author1=Simon Foster |author2=Jen Lin-Liu |author3=Sharon Owyang |author4=Sherisse Pham |author5=Beth Reiber |author6=Lee Wing-sze |publisher=[[Frommers]]|year=2010|page=435|isbn=978-0-470-52658-3}}</ref> Korean [[Hongsalmun]] gateways, and Thai [[Giant Swing|Sao Ching Cha]]<ref name="scheid">{{cite web|url=http://www.univie.ac.at/rel_jap/bauten/anm_torii.htm#aussershinto|title=Religion in Japan|last=Scheid|first=Bernhard|work=Torii|publisher=University of Vienna|language=German|access-date=12 February 2010|archive-date=28 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828213102/http://www.univie.ac.at/rel_jap/bauten/anm_torii.htm#aussershinto|url-status=live}}</ref>  were derived from the Indian ''torana''.

Torana is considered sacred and honorific gateway in [[Hindu architecture|Hindu]] and [[Buddhist architecture|Buddhist]] religious sites.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/torana|title=torana &#124; Indian temple gateway|website=Britannica.com|access-date=3 December 2021|archive-date=13 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013142840/https://www.britannica.com/topic/torana|url-status=live}}</ref> It is built with a projecting cross-piece resting on two uprights or posts. Mostly made of [[wood]] or [[Rock (geology)|stone]], and the cross-piece is generally of three bars placed one on the top of the other; both cross-piece and posts are usually sculpted.

Toranas are associated with Buddhist [[stupa]]s like the ''[[Great Stupa of Sanchi|Great Stupa]]'' in [[Sanchi]], as well as with Jain and Hindu structures, and also with several secular structures. Symbolic toranas can also be made of flowers and even leaves and hung over the doors and at entrances, particularly in Western and Southern India. They are believed to bring good fortune and signify auspicious and festive occasions. They can also serve didactic and narrative purposes or be erected to mark the victory of a king.<ref>Parul Pandya Dhar, (2010). ''The Torana in Indian and Southeast Asian Architecture,'' (New Delhi: D K Printworld,).</ref>

During [[Vesak|Vesak festival]] of [[Sri Lanka]] it is a tradition to erect electrically illuminated colorful Vesak toranas in public places. These decorations are temporary installations which remain in public display for couple of weeks starting from the day of [[Vesak]].

{{gallery
|title=Hindu, Buddhist and Jain toranas
|width=180
|height=120
|File:North_Gateway_-_Rear_Side_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4480-4481.JPG|Rear side of North Torana of Stupa-1 at [[Sanchi]] Hill, 3rd century BCE to 1st century BCE, India
|5=File:Dola Mandap.jpg|6=A photo of Torana taken in 1890 of 10th century [[Jagannath Temple, Puri]], India|7=File:Muktesvara deula.jpg|8=Torana of the 10th century [[Muktesvara deula]], India.|9=File:Warangal_fort.jpg|10=Torana from the 12th century [[Kakatiya dynasty]], at [[Warangal Fort]], India|11=File:Door to ancient time.jpg|12=Torana in Sas-Bahu Temple, Udaipur|13=File:Temples at Jaisalmer Fort -Jaisalmer -Rajasthan -Seal Sum 04.jpg|14=12th century Torana at [[Parshvanatha temple, Jaisalmer Fort]]}}

=== Gavaksha ===
A Gavaksha or chandrashala are often used to describe the motif centred on an ogee, circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and later Indian structural temples and other buildings. It is called a chaitya arch when used on the facade of a chaitya hall, around the single large window. In later forms it develops well beyond this type, and becomes a very flexible unit.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Glossary of Asian Art|url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/asianartglossary.html#chandrashala|access-date=2021-07-15|website=Art-and-archaeology.com|archive-date=16 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116051840/http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/asianartglossary.html#chandrashala|url-status=live}}</ref> Gavāksha is a Sanskrit word which means "bulls or cows eye". In Hindu temples, their role is envisioned as symbolically radiating the light and splendour of the central icon in its sanctum.<ref>Elgood (2000), 103</ref> Alternatively, they are described as providing a window for the deity to gaze out into the world. Like the whole of the classic chaitya, the form originated in the shape of the wooden thatched roofs of buildings, none of which have survived; the earliest version replicating such roofs in stone is at the entrance to the non-Buddhist Lomas Rishi Cave, one of the man-made Barabar Caves in Bihar.