Editing Reformation (section)

===Schmalkaldic Wars===

{{Main|Schmalkaldic War|Second Schmalkaldic War}}

[[File:Carlos V en la Batalla de Mühlberg, por Tiziano.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A fully armed bearded man riding a horse with a lance in his right hand|''Portrait of Emperor {{nowrap|Charles V}} at the 1547 Battle of Mühlberg'' (1548) by [[Tizian]]]]

Scandals and internal conflicts weakened the Protestants' position in Germany in the early 1540s.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=354}} Philip the Magnanimous committed [[bigamy]] by secretly marrying a [[Margarethe von der Saale|lady-in-waiting of his court]] although [[Christine of Saxony|his wife]] was still alive. Bucer, Luther, and Melanchthon had discretely sanctioned the bigamious marriage allegedly to prevent adultery.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|p=354}}{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=222}} In 1542, Philip and John the Constant's successor, [[John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony|John Frederick I]] ({{reign|1532|1547}}) invaded the [[Duchy of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel]] which brought disapproval from other princes. Disputes over lands renewed the old rivalry between the [[Treaty of Leipzig|Ernestine and Albertine]] branches of the [[House of Wettin|Wettin dynasty]] of Saxony. Taking advantage of the situation, Emperor Charles built a broad coalition of Catholic and Evangelical princes against Hesse and Electoral Saxony. The coalition included the Albertine duke [[Maurice, Elector of Saxony|Maurice of Saxony]] ({{reign|1541|1553}}). During the ensuing [[Schmalkaldic War]], Charles and his allies won a decisive victory, and Maurice was rewarded with John Frederick's title of elector.{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=354–356}}

The triumphant {{nowrap|Charles V}} regulated religious issues with an imperial edict known as the ''[[Augsburg Interim]]''. The ''Interim'' sanctioned clerical marriage and the communion in both kinds in Protestant territories, but denied further concessions. Maurice issued an alternative regulation called the ''[[Leipzig Interim]]'' for Saxony which ordered the clergy to wear [[surplice]]s. Melanchthon supported the ''Leipzig Interim'', stating that such issues were "matters indifferent" but uncompromising Lutheran theologians such as [[Nicolaus von Amsdorf]] (d. 1565) and [[Matthias Flacius]] (d. 1575) rejected all concessions to imperial demands. Different views on justification and the Eucharist caused further heated debates between Melanchton's followers, known as [[Philippists]], and their opponents, called [[Gnesio-Lutherans]] ('authentic Lutherans') in the 1550s. The ''Augsburg Interim'' was only implemented in the southern German Protestant cities. This led to the expulsion of recalcitrant clerics, including Bucer from Strasbourg.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=264–265}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=356–357, 372–374}} Alarmed by Charles's triumph, Calvin and Bullinger agreed on a consensual Eucharistic formula, now known as {{lang|la|[[Consensus Tigurinus]]}} ('Consensus of Zürich'), emphasising that Christ "makes us participants of himself" in the Lord's Supper, but also stating that God "uses the ministry of the sacraments" without infusing divine power into them. Luther had died in 1546 but his followers rejected the ''Consensus''.{{refn|group=note|The Evangelical pastor [[Joachim Westphal (of Hamburg)|Joachim Westphal]] (d. 1574) described Calvin as "the cow" and Bullinger as "the bull" in a pamphlet against the ''Consensus'' in 1552.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=244}}}} The rift between Evangelical and Reformed Protestants widened to the extent that Reformed refugees faced an unfriendly reception at Evangelical countries.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|pp=244–245}} In Bohemia, Hussite and Evangelical aristocrats and townspeople rose up against {{nowrap|King Ferdinand I}}. Although Ferdinand crushed the revolt, he had to sanction religious plurality in Moravia as a reward for the Moravian Estates' loyalty during the Bohemian revolt.{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=265}}

Distrusting Emperor Charles, Maurice brokered a coalition of Evangelical princes, and promised four prince-bishoprics to King [[Henry II of France]] ({{reign|1547|1559}}) for financial support. Maurice and his allies [[Second Schmalkaldic War|invaded the Habsburgs' domains]], forcing Charles to flee. Signed on 10 August 1552, the [[Peace of Passau]] prescribed that the religious issues were to be discussed at the following Imperial Diet. The Diet was opened at Augsburg on 5 February 1555. Already exhausted, Charles appointed Ferdinand to represent him. Ferdinand's negotiations with the Evangelical princes ended with the [[Peace of Augsburg]] on 25 September. The document reaffirmed the principle {{lang|la|cuius regio, eius religio}}, but the Imperial Estates could only choose between Catholicism and the ''Augsburg Confession''. Evangelical imperial free cities had to tolerate the existence of Catholic communities within their walls, and prince-bishoprics [[Reservatum ecclesiasticum|could not be secularised]] in case the bishop abandoned the Catholic faith.{{sfn|Lindberg|2021|p=231}}{{sfn|Cameron|2012|pp=357–358}} Charles, who did not sign the peace treaty, abdicated, ceding his imperial title to Ferdinand, and his vast empire to his son [[Philip II of Spain]] ({{reign|1556|1598}}).{{sfn|MacCulloch|2003|p=266}}