Editing 1191 (section)

==== Third Crusade ====
* [[February 13]] &ndash; Muslim forces attack and succeed in breaking the siege lines around [[Acre, Israel|Acre]]. Though the Crusaders seal the breach, [[Saladin]] is able to replenish the garrison, by sending reinforcements. For the defenders, this is a temporary respite – and Saladin is having difficulty keeping his army together. [[Al-Muzaffar I Umar|Taqi al-Din]], Saladin's nephew and one of his most effective commanders, fails to rejoin the siege. He divides his army for his own territorial ambitions in modern southeastern [[Turkey]]. Later in the spring, Taqi al-Din brings his forces to support the double-siege at Acre.<ref name=Nicolle2005>[[David Nicolle]] (2005). ''The Third Crusade 1191: Richard the Lionheart, Saladin and the struggle for Jerusalem''. {{ISBN|978-1-84176-868-7}}.</ref>{{rp|47}}
* [[April 20]] &ndash; King [[Philip II of France|Philip II]] ('''Augustus''') arrives with a Genoese flotilla (six ships) filled with French nobles and his cousin [[Conrad of Montferrat]] at Acre. He begins the construction of seven immense stone-throwers – which are used to bombard the city, on [[May 30]]. One of the siege-machines is called by the French soldiers the "Evil Neighbour" and "God's Own Sling", and a grappling ladder is known as the "Cat". Meanwhile, the walls of Acre are pounded relentlessly. The Crusaders built earthworks, ramparts, and ditches to protect themselves against Muslim attacks.<ref name=Runciman1952>Steven Runciman (1952). ''A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre''. {{ISBN|978-0-241-29877-0}}.</ref>{{rp|41}}
* [[June 8]] &ndash; Richard I arrives with 25 ships and a strong advanced guard at Acre. Upon reaching the city, he is greeted by Philip II and then sets up his camp. Richard becomes almost immediately seriously ill (called ''Arnaldia'') and is confined to his tent. Nevertheless, he leaps into action and secretly initiates negotiations with Saladin. After having been refused a personal meeting, Richard sends a Moroccan prisoner to Saladin's camp as a sign of goodwill. Finally, Saladin accepts a three-day truce and allows his younger brother, [[Al-Adil I|Al-Adil]], to negotiate with Richard.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|40–41}}
* [[June 25]] &ndash; The Crusader armies (now totaling some 25,000 men) who are deployed around Acre, implement a unified strategy of assault-based siege. Teams of sappers and, increasingly massive use of advanced and new stone-throwing catapults, brought by Philip II and Richard I, are used to hammer Acre's walls continuously with giant, accurately loosed stones. By late June, the assault is beginning to undermine the walls, which are tottering. Because of troop shortages and disease, the Muslim defenders can not any longer strengthen their walls.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|42}}
* [[July 3]] &ndash; The Crusaders change their strategy from battering the Acre fortifications to exploiting the breaches. After only the first day of these all-out attacks to seize the city, Saladin's governor sends a message stating he would surrender unless he is relieved. Both French sappers and English catapults manage to make significant breaches in the walls – but the assault is repulsed. Meanwhile, Richard I, still unable to walk due to illness, is carried on a regal stretcher near the front lines from where he picks off Muslim troops on the walls using his [[crossbow]].<ref>Asbridge, Thomas (2012). ''The Crusades: The War for the Holy land'', p. 294. Simon and Schuster. {{ISBN|978-1-849-83770-5}}.</ref>
* [[July 12]] &ndash; [[Siege of Acre (1189–1191)|Siege of Acre]]: The Muslim garrison surrenders to Philip II, which includes an agreement to give up the 70 Muslim ships in the harbour without Saladin's consent, and by the time that he learned of this intention, the city has already capitulated. Conrad of Montferrat, who has negotiated the surrender, raises the banners of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], and of the Crusader leaders Philip II, Richard I, and [[Leopold V, Duke of Austria|Leopold V of Austria]], on the city's walls and towers. The siege of Acre has taken nearly two years and has cost some 100,000 Christian casualties.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|43}}
* [[July 31]] &ndash; Philip II, accompanied by Conrad of Montferrat, departs to [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] and returns to [[France in the Middle Ages|France]]. He leaves behind a French army (some 10,000 men) under the command of [[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy|Hugh III]], duke of [[Burgundy]]. Richard I is left in sole command of the Crusader forces in the [[Levant]]. Back in France, Philip schemes with Richard's brother, [[John of England]], to dispossess Richard of his French lands while he is still away, but the intervention of John's mother, Queen [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], foils the plan. Meanwhile, Richard rebuilds and strengthens the walls of Acre.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|44–45}}
* [[August 20]] &ndash; [[Massacre at Ayyadieh|Massacre of Ayyadieh]]: Richard I orders the execution of some 3,000 Muslim prisoners (captured after the siege of Acre), including women and children. The bound prisoners are mercilessly beheaded or cut down using swords and lances. A small group of Saladin's forces (located on [[Mount Tabor]]) tries to intervene in order to stop the massacre – but they are repelled. In response, Saladin executes all the Latin prisoners he himself has taken. In the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid Sultanate]], Latin prisoners are tortured and murdered in reprisal for their infamy.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|45–46}}
* [[August 22]] &ndash; Richard I leads the Crusader forces (some 15,000 men) out of Acre and marches south along the coast, being closely supported by the Crusader fleet, carrying most of the supplies. Meanwhile, Saladin has given his son [[Al-Afdal ibn Salah ad-Din|Al-Afdal]] orders to remain close to the Crusader rearguard under Hugh III, and strengthens the Muslim garrison both in Jerusalem and [[Ascalon]] with 20,000 men each. Richard advances at an unexpectedly slow pace and decides to make camp near [[Haifa]] – which Saladin has dismantled shortly before the fall of Acre.<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|46}}
* [[August 25]]&ndash;[[August 26|26]] &ndash; Richard I leads a fast-moving advance-guard and establishes a strong position at the fortress near [[Tantura|Merle]] before Saladin arrives. He then hurries back to support the rearguard, to regain contact with the Crusader forces. Richard reorganizes his marching column. The elite [[Knights Templar|Templar]] and [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitaller]] knights hold the van and rearguard, while Richard and a central mass of knights are screened on their landward left side by dense ranks of well-armoured infantry, whose panoply makes them almost immune to Muslim missile attacks.<ref name=Nicolle2005/>{{rp|52}}
* [[August 30]] &ndash; Richard I advances in three divisions towards [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]], with the Crusader fleet accompanying him off-shore. The rearguard becomes engaged, and the French forces under Hugh III are nearly annihilated. Saladin has selected this part of the road for a major assault, but the Muslim attacks have little effect. The main effort to harass the Crusaders from a distance fails. Richard makes camp at the mouth of the [[Zarqa River]], despite the intense heat, thirst, and the loss of many lives. Both armies rest and watch each other the rest of the day.<ref name=Nicolle2005/>{{rp|59}}
* [[September 2]] &ndash; Richard I leads the Crusader army past Caesarea and is forced to turn inland, where he is separated from his supply ships. Saladin personally attacks the massed Crusader infantry, by bombarding them with arrows before charging their line with cavalry. During this brief but indecisive engagement, Richard is struck in the side by a crossbow bolt – though his armour absorbs much of the blow. By the end of the day, only 25 miles from [[Jaffa]], Richard allows his men to rest (while recovering from his wounds) and re-assembles his forces.<ref name=Nicolle2005/>{{rp|66}}
* [[September 5]] &ndash; Richard I dispatches envoys to request for peace talks and meets Al-Adil under a flag of truce. Saladin allows the Crusaders to forage in the Forrest of [[Apollonia–Arsuf|Arsuf]]. But Richard is in no mood for actual negotiations and demands nothing less than the cession of Palestina. Al-Adil at once breaks off the negotiations. Richard orders his forces to march quietly through the woods, and the Crusaders manage to reach the limits of the forest unhindered and unharmed. The Crusaders pitch their tents in the "Rochetaille" and rest for the night.<ref name=Nicolle2005/>{{rp|66}}
* [[September 7]] &ndash; [[Battle of Arsuf]]: Richard I fights a pitched battle – while waiting for the ideal moment to mount a counterattack. However, the Hospitaller knights led by [[Garnier de Nablus]] break formation and launch a charge. Richard restores order in the turmoil and is forced to commit his entire army to support the attack. The Muslim forces flee in panic, but Saladin rallies them in time to defend his camp, and even to lead a counter-charge. By evening, Richard has defeated the Muslim forces, and Saladin retreats in good order to [[Ramallah]].<ref name=Runciman1952/>{{rp|47–49}}
* [[September 9]]&ndash;[[September 10|10]] &ndash; Richard I and his Crusader forces march on to Jaffa and set about rebuilding its fortifications, which Saladin has destroyed by his [[scorched-earth]] policy. Mid-September, a large number of French nobles begin to resist – such as Hugh III. They argue about the refortification of Jaffa, instead of a direct strike inland on Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Saladin evacuates and demolishes most of the fortresses of southern Palestina.<ref>Oman, Charles William Chadwick (1924). ''A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages. Vol I: 378–1278 AD'', pp. 317–318. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, reprinted in 1998.</ref>
* [[October 29]] &ndash; Richard I marches with the Crusader forces onto the plains east of Jaffa and begins the slow, steady work of rebuilding a string of sites through which to advance on Jerusalem. During this period, the [[Third Crusade]] degenerates into a series of skirmishes. Richard uses diplomacy alongside military threats, hoping to bring Saladin to the point of submission before he has to make the siege of Jerusalem itself.<ref>Verbruggen, J. F. (1997). ''The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages: From the Eighth Century to 1340'', p. 239. Boydell & Brewer.</ref>
* December &ndash; Richard I and his Crusader forces occupy [[Latrun]], while the advance-guard takes [[Bayt Nuba]]. He is warned by his nobles to take no further risks – due to winter conditions, and for being cut off if he presses on. Amongst those keenest on continuing are the French Crusaders under Hugh III. On [[December 25]], Richard is now just 12 miles from Jerusalem.<ref name=Nicolle2005/>{{rp|85}}