Editing Angola (section)

===Portuguese colonization===
{{Main|Colonial history of Angola|Portuguese Angola}}
[[File:Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Kongo.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Coat of arms granted to King [[Afonso I of Kongo]] by King [[Manuel I of Portugal]]]]
[[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Age of Discovery|explorer]] [[Diogo Cão]] reached the area in 1484.<ref name=EB1878/> The previous year, the Portuguese had established relations with the [[Kingdom of Kongo]], which stretched at the time from modern [[Gabon]] in the north to the [[Kwanza River]] in the south. The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at [[Soyo]], which is now the northernmost city in Angola apart from the [[Cabinda Province|Cabinda]] [[enclave and exclave|exclave]].

[[Paulo Dias de Novais]] founded São Paulo de Loanda ([[Luanda]]) in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. [[Benguela]] was fortified in 1587 and became a township in 1617. An authoritarian state, the Kingdom of Kongo was highly centralised around its monarch and controlled neighbouring states as [[vassal state|vassals]]. It had a strong economy, based on the industries of [[copper]], [[ivory]], [[salt]], [[Hide (skin)|hides]], and, to a lesser extent, [[Slavery|slaves]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 November 2023 |title=The Rise and Fall of the Ancient Kongo Kingdom |url=https://www.africarebirth.com/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-ancient-kongo-kingdom/ |access-date=31 March 2024 |website=Africa Rebirth|archive-date=31 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331094540/https://www.africarebirth.com/the-rise-and-fall-of-the-ancient-kongo-kingdom/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The transition from a feudal system of slavery to a capitalist one with Portugal would prove crucial to the history of the Kingdom of Kongo.<ref name=":22">{{cite journal | last=Heywood | first=Linda M. | title=Slavery and Its Transformation in the Kingdom of Kongo: 1491-1800 | journal=The Journal of African History | publisher=Cambridge University Press | volume=50 | issue=1 | year=2009 | issn=0021-8537 | jstor=40206695 | pages=1–22 | doi=10.1017/S0021853709004228 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40206695 | url-access=subscription }}</ref>

As relations between Kongo and Portugal grew in the early 16th century, trade between the kingdoms also increased. Most of the trade was in palm cloth, copper, and ivory, but also increasing numbers of slaves.<ref name=":22" /> Kongo exported few slaves, and its slave market had remained internal. But, following the development of a successful sugar-growing colony after Portuguese settlement of [[São Tomé]], Kongo became a major source of [[Slavery|slaves]] for the island's traders and plantations. Correspondence by King Afonso documents the purchase and sale of slaves within the country. His accounts also detail which slaves captured in war were given or sold to Portuguese merchants.<ref name=":32">{{cite book |author=Atmore, Anthony and Oliver |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalafrica1200rola |title=Medieval Africa, 1250–1800 |year=2001 |page=[https://archive.org/details/medievalafrica1200rola/page/171 171] |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Afonso continued to expand the kingdom of Kongo into the 1540s, expanding its borders to the south and east. The expansion of Kongo's population, coupled with Afonso's earlier religious reforms, allowed the ruler to centralize power in his capital and increase the power of the monarchy. He also established a royal monopoly on some trade.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":22" /> To govern the growing slave trade, Afonso and several Portuguese kings claimed a joint monopoly on the external slave trade.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":22" />

The slave trade increasingly became Kongo's primary, and arguably sole, [[economic sector]]. A major obstacle for the Kingdom of Kongo was that slaves were the only commodity for which the European powers were willing to trade. Kongo lacked an effective [[World currency|international currency]]. Kongolese nobles could buy slaves with the national currency of [[Shell money|nzimbu shells]], which could be traded for slaves. These could be sold to gain international currency.

As the slave trade was the only commodity in which Europeans were interested in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Kongo economy was unable to [[Economic diversification|diversify]] or later [[Industrial Revolution|industrialise]] outside of sectors in which slavery was involved, such as the [[arms industry]].<ref name="Kingdom of Kongo 1390 – 1914 | South African History Online">{{Cite web |title=Kingdom of Kongo 1390–1914 |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914#endnote-45 |access-date=31 March 2024 |publisher=South African History Online |archive-date=23 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190223184815/https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914#endnote-45 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":5">Rinquist, John: Kongo Iron: ''Symbolic Power, Superior Technology and Slave Wisdom'', African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter, Volume 11, Issue 3, September 2008, Article 3, pp.14–15</ref> The increased production and sale of guns within the kingdom was due to the salient issue of the slave trade, which had become an increasingly violent struggle. There was a constant need for slaves for the kings and queens to sell in exchange for foreign commodities, the absence of which would prevent them from having any influence with European powers such as Portugal and eventually the [[Dutch Republic]].

Kongolese kings needed this influence to garner support from European powers for quelling internal rebellions. The situation became increasingly complicated during the rule of [[Garcia II of Kongo|Garcia II]], who needed the assistance of the Dutch military to drive out the Portuguese from [[Luanda]], in spite of the fact that Portugal was Kongo's primary slave trading partner.<ref name="Kingdom of Kongo 1390 – 1914 | South African History Online" />

By the early 17th century, the supply of foreign slaves captured by the Kongolese externally was waning. The government began to approve the enslavement of freeborn Kongolese citizens for relatively minor infractions, nearly any disobeying of the authoritarian system and the aristocracy. If several villagers were deemed guilty of a crime, it became relatively common for the whole village to be enslaved. The resulting chaos and internal conflict from Garcia II's reign would lead into that of his son and successor, [[António I of Kongo|António I]]. He was killed in 1665 by Portuguese at the [[Battle of Mbwila]] 1665, together with a substantial proportion of the aristocracy. The colonists were expanding their power.<ref>Thornton, John K: ''Warfare in Atlantic Africa 1500–1800,'' 1999. Routledge. Page 103.</ref>

War broke out more widely in the Kingdom of Kongo after the death of António I.<ref name=":5" /> Much of the stability and access to [[iron ore]] and [[charcoal]] necessary for [[gunsmith]]s to maintain the arms industry was disrupted. From then on, in this period almost every Kongolese citizen was in danger of being enslaved.<ref>Thornton, John K: ''The Kongolese Saint Anthonty: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1684–1706'', page 69. Cambridge University, 1998</ref><ref name="Kingdom of Kongo 1390 – 1914 | South African History Online" /> Many Kongolese subjects were adroit in making guns, and they were enslaved to have their skills available to colonists in the New World, where they worked as blacksmiths, ironworkers, and charcoal makers.<ref name=":5" />

The Portuguese established several other settlements, forts and trading posts along the Angolan coast, principally trading in [[Slavery in Angola|Angolan slaves]] for [[plantations in the American South|plantations]]. Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the [[Portuguese Empire]],<ref name="Fleisch">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Fleisch |first= Axel|title=Angola: Slave Trade, Abolition of|encyclopedia= Encyclopedia of African History |editor-last=Shillington|editor-first=Kevin|volume=1|pages=131–133|publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=1-57958-245-1}}</ref> usually in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe.<ref>{{cite book|title=Angola President Jose Eduardo Dos Santos Handbook|author=<!--Not stated-->|publisher=Int'l Business Publications USA|date=1 January 2006|page=153|isbn=0739716069}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|access-date=14 May 2016|page=27|url= http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFRICAEXT/Resources/africa-brazil-bridging-chapter2.pdf |chapter=The History of Brazil–Africa Relations|author=<!--Not stated-->|title=Bridging the Atlantic|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530153221/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/AFRICAEXT/Resources/africa-brazil-bridging-chapter2.pdf |archive-date=30 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> This part of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] continued until after [[independence of Brazil|Brazil's independence]] in the 1820s.<ref name="Handbook">{{Cite book|title=Angola, a Country Study|edition=Third|editor-last=Collelo|editor-first=Thomas|year=1991|publisher=Department of the Army, [[American University]]|location=Washington, D.C.|series=Area Handbook Series|isbn=978-0160308444|pages=14–26}}</ref>
[[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|thumb|right|[[Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba|Queen Ana de Sousa of Ndongo]] meeting with the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], 1657]]
[[File:Cidade de São Paulo da Assumpção de Loanda.jpg|thumb|left|Depiction of [[Luanda]] from 1755]]
Despite Portugal's territorial claims in Angola, its control over much of the country's vast interior was minimal.<ref name=EB1878/> In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars. Life for European colonists was difficult and progress was slow. [[John Iliffe (historian)|John Iliffe]] notes that "Portuguese records of Angola from the 16th century show that a great [[famine]] occurred on average every seventy years; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half of the population, destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys".<ref>Iliffe, John (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?id=bNGN2URP_rUC ''Africans: the history of a continent''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610211914/https://books.google.com/books?id=bNGN2URP_rUC |date=10 June 2016 }}. Cambridge University Press. p. 68. {{ISBN|0-521-68297-5}}. For valuable complements for the 16th and 17th centuries see Beatrix Heintze, ''Studien zur Geschichte Angolas im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert'', Colónia/Alemanha: Köppe, 1996</ref>

During the [[Portuguese Restoration War]], the [[Dutch West India Company]] [[Dutch Loango-Angola|occupied]] the principal settlement of Luanda in 1641, using alliances with local peoples to carry out attacks against Portuguese holdings elsewhere.<ref name="Handbook"/> A fleet under [[Salvador de Sá]] retook Luanda in 1648; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650. New treaties with the [[Kingdom of Kongo|Kongo]] were signed in 1649; others with [[Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba|Njinga]]'s Kingdom of [[Matamba]] and [[Ndongo]] followed in 1656. The conquest of [[Pungo Andongo]] in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda, as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Colonial outposts also expanded inward from Benguela, but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited.<ref name=EB1878/> Hamstrung by a series of political upheavals in the early 1800s, Portugal was slow to mount a large scale annexation of Angolan territory.<ref name="Handbook"/>
[[File:Cadornega.jpg|thumb|right|upright|''History of Angola''; written in Luanda in 1680.]]

The [[History of slavery|slave trade]] was abolished in Angola in 1836, and in 1854 the colonial government freed all its existing slaves.<ref name="Handbook"/> Four years later, a more progressive administration appointed by Portugal abolished [[slavery]] altogether. However, these decrees remained largely unenforceable, and the Portuguese depended on assistance from the British [[Royal Navy]] and what became known as the [[Blockade of Africa]] to enforce their ban on the slave trade.<ref name="Handbook"/> This coincided with a series of renewed military expeditions into the bush.

By the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established its dominion as far north as the [[Congo River]] and as far south as [[Moçâmedes|Mossâmedes]].<ref name="Handbook"/> Until the late 1880s, Portugal entertained proposals to link Angola with its [[colony]] in [[Mozambique]] but was blocked by British and Belgian opposition.<ref name=Corrado>{{cite book|last=Corrado|first=Jacopo|title=The Creole Elite and the Rise of Angolan Protonationalism: 1870–1920|date=2008|pages=11–13|publisher=Cambria Press|location=Amherst, New York|isbn=978-1604975291}}</ref> In this period, the Portuguese came up against different forms of armed resistance from various peoples in Angola.<ref>See René Pélissier, ''Les guerres grises: Résistance et revoltes en Angola, (1845-1941)'', Éditions Pélissier, Montamets, 78630 Orgeval (France), 1977</ref>

The [[Berlin Conference]] in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders, delineating the boundaries of Portuguese claims in Angola,<ref name=Corrado/> although many details were unresolved until the 1920s.<ref>See René Pélissier, ''La colonie du Minotaure. Nationalismes et révoltes en Angola (1926–1961)'', éditions Pélissier, Montamets, 78630 Orgeval (France), 1979</ref> Trade between Portugal and its African territories rapidly increased as a result of protective [[tariff]]s, leading to increased development, and a wave of new Portuguese immigrants.<ref name=Corrado/>

In 1925, an expedition to Angola was conducted by American naturalist explorer [[Arthur Stannard Vernay]].

Between 1939 and 1943, Portuguese army operations against the Mucubal, who they accused of rebellion and cattle-thieving, resulted in hundreds of Mucubal killed. During the campaign, 3,529 were taken prisoner, 20% of whom were women and children, and imprisoned in concentration camps. Many died in captivity from undernourishment, violence and forced labor. Around 600 were sent to [[Sao Tome and Principe]]. Hundreds were also sent to a camp in [[Damba (municipality)|Damba]], where 26% died.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Coca de Campos  |first1=Rafael|year=2022 |title=Kakombola: O genocídio dos Mucubais na Angola Colonial, 1930 – 1943 |journal=Atena Editora |language=pt|doi=10.22533/at.ed.663221201 |isbn=978-65-5983-766-3 }}</ref>