Editing Basque language (section)

== Geographic distribution ==
[[File:Basque Geographical Traces.svg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|Geographical traces of the Basque language. Blue dots: place names; red dots: epigraphic traces (gravestones...) in Roman times; blue patch: maximum extension.]]
[[File:Euskara.png|thumb|Percentage of fluent speakers of Basque (areas where Basque is not spoken are included within the 0–4% interval)]]
[[File:Navarra - Mapa densidad euskera 2001.svg|thumb|right|Percentage of people fluent in Basque language in Navarre (2001), including second-language speakers]]

The region where Basque is spoken has become smaller over centuries, especially at the northern, southern, and eastern borders. Nothing is known about the limits of this region in ancient times, but on the basis of toponyms and epigraphs, it seems that in the beginning of the [[Common Era]] it stretched to the river [[Garonne]] in the north (including the south-western part of present-day France); at least to the [[Val d'Aran]] in the east (now a [[Gascon language|Gascon]]-speaking part of [[Catalonia]]), including lands on both sides of the [[Pyrenees]];<ref>{{harvnb|Zuazo|2010|page=16}}</ref> the southern and western boundaries are not clear at all.

The [[Reconquista]] temporarily counteracted this contracting tendency when the Christian lords called on northern Iberian peoples — Basques, [[Asturians]], and "[[Franks]]" — to colonise the new conquests. The Basque language became the main everyday language,{{Where|date=January 2013}} while other languages like [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Gascon language|Gascon]], [[French language|French]], or [[Latin]] were preferred for the administration and high education.

By the 16th century, the Basque-speaking area was reduced basically to the present-day seven provinces of the Basque Country, excluding the southern part of Navarre, the south-western part of [[Álava]], and the western part of Biscay, and including some parts of [[Béarn]].{{sfn|Zuazo|2010|page=17}}

In 1807, Basque was still spoken in the northern half of Álava—including its capital city [[Vitoria-Gasteiz]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Zuazo |first=Koldo |title=Arabako euskara |year=2012 |publisher=Elkar |location=Andoain (Gipuzkoa) |isbn=978-84-15337-72-0 |page=21}}</ref>—and a vast area in central Navarre, but in these two provinces, Basque experienced a rapid decline that pushed its border northwards. In the [[French Basque Country]], Basque was still spoken in all the territory except in [[Bayonne]] and some villages around, and including some bordering towns in [[Béarn]].

In the 20th century, however, the rise of [[Basque nationalism]] spurred increased interest in the language as a sign of ethnic identity, and with the establishment of autonomous governments in the [[Southern Basque Country]], it has recently made a modest comeback. In the Spanish part, Basque-language schools for children and Basque-teaching centres for adults have brought the language to areas such as western [[Enkarterri]] and the Ribera del Ebro in southern Navarre, where it is not known to ever have been widely spoken; and in the French Basque Country, these schools and centres have almost stopped the decline of the language.

=== Official status ===
[[File:Navarra - Zonificacion linguistica.png|thumb|Official status of the Basque language in Navarre]]

Historically, Latin or Romance languages have been the official languages in this region. However, Basque was explicitly recognised in some areas. For instance, the ''[[fuero]]'' or charter of the Basque-colonised [[Ojacastro]] (now in [[La Rioja (Spain)|La Rioja]]) allowed the inhabitants to use Basque in legal processes in the 13th and 14th centuries. Basque was allowed in telegraph messages in Spain thanks to the royal decree of 1904.<ref>The first telegraph message in Basque was sent by [[Teodoro de Arana y Beláustegui]], at the time a deputy to the Cortes from Gipuzkoa, to Ondarroa; it read: {{lang|eu|Aitorreu hizcuntz ederrean nere lagun eta erritarrai bistz barrengo eroipenac}} ({{Translation|heartfelt regards to my friends and compatriots in the wonderful language of Aitor}}), ''[https://prensahistorica.mcu.es/es/catalogo%20imagenes/grupo.do?path=3043892&posicion=2&presentacion=pagina Diario de Reus]'' 26.06.04</ref>

The [[Spanish Constitution of 1978]] states in Article 3 that the [[Spanish language]] is the official language of the nation, but allows autonomous communities to provide a co-official language status for the other [[languages of Spain]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tribunalconstitucional.es/es/constitucion/Paginas/ConstitucionIngles.aspx#I2 |title=Spanish Constitution |publisher=Spanish Constitutional Court |access-date=2013-06-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620064544/http://www.tribunalconstitucional.es/es/constitucion/Paginas/ConstitucionIngles.aspx#I2 |archive-date=20 June 2013}}</ref> Consequently, the Statute of Autonomy of the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Autonomous Community]] establishes Basque as the co-official language of the autonomous community. The Statute of Navarre establishes Spanish as the official language of Navarre, but grants co-official status to the Basque language in the Basque-speaking areas of northern Navarre. Basque has no official status in the French Basque Country and French citizens are barred from officially using Basque in a French court of law. However, the use of Basque by Spanish nationals in French courts is permitted (with translation), as Basque is officially recognised on the other side of the border.

The positions of the various existing governments differ with regard to the promotion of Basque in areas where Basque is commonly spoken. The language has official status in those territories that are within the Basque Autonomous Community, where it is spoken and promoted heavily, but only partially in Navarre. The {{Lang|es|Ley del Vascuence}} ({{Gloss|Law of Basque}}), seen as contentious by many Basques, but considered fitting Navarra's linguistic and cultural diversity by some of the main political parties of Navarre,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.diariodenavarra.es/20110217/navarra/el-parlamento-rechaza-ley-hacer-oficial-euskera-toda-navarra.html?not=2011021711344312&idnot=2011021711344312&dia=20110217&seccion=navarra&seccion2=politica&chnl=10 |title=Navarrese Parliament rejects to grant Basque Language co-official status in Spanish-speaking areas by suppressing the linguistic delimitation |publisher=[[Diario de Navarra]] |date=16 February 2011 |access-date=2013-06-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140706214023/http://www.diariodenavarra.es/20110217/navarra/el-parlamento-rechaza-ley-hacer-oficial-euskera-toda-navarra.html?not=2011021711344312&idnot=2011021711344312&dia=20110217&seccion=navarra&seccion2=politica&chnl=10 |archive-date=6 July 2014}}</ref> divides Navarre into three language areas: Basque-speaking, non-Basque-speaking, and mixed. Support for the language and the linguistic rights of citizens vary, depending on the area. Others consider it unfair, since the rights of Basque speakers differ greatly depending on the place they live.

=== Demographics ===
[[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe-en.gif|thumb|right|Map showing the historical retreat and expansion of Basque within the context of its linguistic neighbours between the years 1000 and 2000]]
[[File:Euskara iparraldean.ogv|thumb|Testimonies of Basque sociolinguistic dynamics (French Basque Country)]]

[[File:Euskarazko hitz egiteagatik zigortutako Bedaioko ikasle baten koadernoa 2.jpg|thumb|[[Writing lines|Lines]] in an exercise book given as punishment during [[Franco's regime]]. The line is "{{lang|es|En la escuela no tengo que hablar vasco}}" ({{Translation|"I must not speak in Basque at school"}}).]]

The 2021 sociolinguistic survey of all Basque-speaking territories showed that, of all people aged 16 and above:<ref name=basquetribune />
* In the [[Basque Autonomous Community]], 36.2% were fluent Basque speakers, 18.5% [[passive speaker (language)|passive speakers]] and 45.3% did not speak Basque. The percentage was highest in [[Gipuzkoa]] (51.8% speakers) and [[Bizkaia]] (30.6%) and lowest in Álava (22.4%). These results represent an increase from previous years (33.9% in 2016, 30.1% in 2006, 29.5% in 2001, 27.7% in 1996 and 24.1% in 1991). The highest percentage of speakers can now be found in the 16–24 age range (74.5%) vs. 22.0% in the 65+ age range.
* In the [[French Basque Country]], in 2021, 20.0% were fluent Basque speakers. Because the French Basque Country is not under the influence of the Basque Autonomous Country government, people in the region have fewer incentives from government authorities to learn the language. As such, these results represent another decrease from previous years (22.5% in 2006, 24.8% in 2001 and 26.4 in 1996 or 56,146 in 1996 to 51,197 in 2016). However, for those in the 16-24 age range, the proportion of Basque speakers increased to 21.5%, from 12.2% 20 years earlier.
* In [[Navarre]], 14.1% were fluent Basque speakers, 10.5% passive speakers, and 75.4% did not speak Basque. The percentage was highest in the Basque-speaking zone in the north (62.3% speakers, including 85.9% of youth) and lowest in the non-Basque-speaking zone in the south (1.6%). The overall proportion of 14.1% represented a slight increase from previous years (12.9% in 2016, 11.1% in 2006,10.3% in 2001, 9.6% in 1996 and 9.5% in 1991). Among age groups, the highest percentage of speakers can now be found in the 16–24 age range (28%) vs. 8.3% in the 65+ age range.

In 2021, out of a population of 2,634,800 over 16 years of age (1,838,800 in the Autonomous community, 546,000 in Navarre and 250,000 in the Northern Basque Country), 806,000 spoke Basque, which amounted to 30.6% of the population. Compared to the 1991 figures, this represents an overall increase of 266,000, from 539,110 speakers 30 years previously (430,000 in the BAC,{{clarify|date=October 2024}} 40,110 in FCN,{{clarify|date=October 2024}} and 69,000 in the Northern provinces). This number has tended to increase, as in all regions the age group most likely to speak Basque was those between 16 and 24 years old. In the BAC, the proportion in this age group who spoke the language (74.5%) was nearly triple the comparable figure from 1991, when barely a quarter of the population spoke Basque.<ref name=basquetribune />

While there is a general increase in the number of Basque speakers during this period, this is mainly because of [[bilingualism]]. Basque transmission as a sole mother tongue has decreased from 19% in 1991 to 15.1% in 2016, while Basque and another language being used as mother language increased from 3% to 5.4% in the same time period. General public attitude towards efforts to promote the Basque language have also been more positive, with the share of people against these efforts falling from 20.9% in 1991 to 16% in 2016.<ref name="InkestaVI"/>

In 2021, the study found that in the BAC, when both parents were Basque speakers, 98% of children were only communicated to in Basque, while 2% were communicated to in both Basque and Spanish. When only one parent was a Basque speaker and their first language was Basque, 84% used Basque and Spanish and 16% only Spanish. In Navarre, the family language of 94.3% of the youngest respondents with both Basque parents was Basque. In the Northern Basque Country, however, when both parents were Basque-speaking, just two-thirds transmitted only Basque to their offspring, and as age decreased, the transmission rate also decreased.<ref name=basquetribune />

{| class="wikitable sortable" width=50% style=" text-align:left;clear:all; margin-left:20px; margin-right;"
|+Basque speakers (as a % of each region's population), gains/losses compared to previous survey
|-bgcolor=#efefef class="sortable"
!scope="col"|&nbsp;
!scope="col"|Across all
!scope="col"|{{Abbr|BAC|Basque Autonomous Community}}
!scope="col"|Navarre
!scope="col"|{{Abbr|FBC|French Basque Community}}
|-
|1991<ref name="InkestaIV">''Sixth Sociolinguistic Survey'' Gobierno Vasco, Servicio Central de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco 2016, {{ISBN|978-84-457-3502-2}}</ref>
|22.3%
|24.1%
|9.5%
| -
|-
| 1996<ref name="InkestaIV" />
| 24.4% ({{increase}} 2.1%)
| 27.7% ({{increase}} 3.6%)
| 9.6% ({{increase}} 0.1%)
| 26.4%
|-
| 2001<ref name="InkestaIV" />
| 25.4% ({{increase}} 1%)
| 29.4% ({{increase}} 1.7%)
| 10.3% ({{increase}} 0.7%)
| 24.8% ({{decrease}} 1.6%)
|-
| 2006<ref name="InkestaIV" />
| 25.7% ({{increase}} 0.3%)
| 30.1% ({{increase}} 0.7%)
| 11.1% ({{increase}} 0.8%)
| 22.5% ({{decrease}} 2.3%)
|-
| 2011<ref>''V. Inkesta Soziolinguistikoa'' Gobierno Vasco, Servicio Central de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco 2003, {{ISBN|978-84-457-3303-5}}</ref>
| 27.0% ({{increase}} 1.3%)
| 32.0% ({{increase}} 1.9%)
| 11.7% ({{increase}} 0.6%)
| 21.4% ({{decrease}} 1.1%)
|-
| 2016<ref name="InkestaVI">''VI. Inkesta Soziolinguistikoa'' Gobierno Vasco, Servicio Central de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco 2016</ref>
| 28.4% ({{increase}} 1.4%)
| 33.9% ({{increase}} 1.9%)
| 12.9% ({{increase}} 1.2%)
| 20.5% ({{decrease}} 0.9%)
|-
| 2021<ref name=basquetribune />
| 30.6% ({{increase}} 2.2%)
| 36.2% ({{increase}} 2.3%)
| 14.1% ({{increase}} 1.2%)
| 20.0% ({{decrease}} 0.5%)
|-
|}

Basque is used as a language of commerce both in the Basque Country and in locations around the world where Basques immigrated throughout history.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ray |first=Nina M. |date=1 January 2009 |title=Basque Studies: Commerce, Heritage, And A Language Less Commonly Taught, But Whole-Heartedly Celebrated |url=https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/gbl/vol12/iss1/10/ |journal=Global Business Languages |volume=12 |page=10 |id={{ProQuest|85685222}}}}</ref>

=== Dialects ===
{{Main|Basque dialects}}
[[File:Euskalkiak koldo zuazo 2008.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The modern dialects of Basque according to 21st-century dialectology. {{legend|#849D4D|Western (Biscayan)}}{{legend|#CA5655|Central (Gipuzkoan)}}{{legend|#5287C8|Upper Navarrese}}{{legend|#D0AA5A|Lower Navarrese–Lapurdian}}{{legend|#C9CA52|Souletin (Zuberoan)}}{{legend|#9B9D9A|other Basque areas ''ca'' 1850 (Bonaparte)}}]]

The modern Basque dialects show a high degree of dialectal divergence, sometimes making cross-dialect communication difficult. This is especially true in the case of Biscayan and Souletin, which are regarded as the most divergent Basque dialects.

Modern Basque dialectology distinguishes five dialects:<ref name=Zuazo2010>{{harvnb|Zuazo|2010}}</ref>
* [[Biscayan dialect|Biscayan or "Western"]]
* [[Gipuzkoan dialect|Gipuzkoan or "Central"]]
* [[Upper Navarrese dialect|Upper Navarrese]]
* [[Navarro-Lapurdian dialect|Navarro-Lapurdian]]
* [[Souletin dialect|Souletin (Zuberoan)]]

These dialects are divided in 11 subdialects, and 24 minor varieties among them.
According to [[Koldo Zuazo]],<ref name=Zuazo2003>{{cite book |last=Zuazo |first=Koldo |title=Euskalkiak. Herriaren lekukoak |language=eu |trans-title=Dialects. People's witnesses |year=2003 |publisher=Elkar |isbn=9788497830614}}</ref> the Biscayan dialect or "Western" is the most widespread dialect, with around 300,000 speakers out of a total of around 660,000 speakers. This dialect is divided in two minor subdialects: the Western Biscayan and Eastern Biscayan, plus transitional dialects.

=== Influence on other languages ===
{{See also|List of Spanish words of Basque origin}}
Although the influence of the neighbouring [[Romance languages]] on the Basque language (especially the lexicon, but also to some degree Basque phonology and grammar) has been much more extensive, it is usually assumed that there has been some feedback from Basque into these languages as well. In particular [[Gascon language|Gascon]] and [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], and to a lesser degree [[Spanish language|Spanish]] are thought to have received this influence in the past. In the case of Aragonese and Gascon, this would have been through [[Substratum (linguistics)|substrate]] interference following [[language shift]] from [[Aquitanian language|Aquitanian]] or Basque to a Romance language, affecting all levels of the language, including place names around the Pyrenees.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Corominas |first=Joan |title=La toponymie hispanique prérromane et la survivance du basque jusqu'au bas moyen age |language=fr |trans-title=Pre-Romanesque Hispanic toponymy and the survival of Basque until the late Middle Ages |journal=IV Congrès International de Sciences Onomastiques |year=1960}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Corominas |first=Joan |title=Estudis de toponímia catalana, I |language=ca |trans-title=Studies of Catalan toponymy, I |year=1965 |publisher=Barcino |isbn=978-84-7226-080-1 |pages=153–217}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Corominas |first=Joan |title=De toponimia vasca y vasco-románica en los Bajos Pirineos |language=es |trans-title=Basque and Basque-Romanesque toponymy in the Low Pyrenees |journal=Fontes Linguae Vasconum: Studia et Documenta |year=1972 |issue=12 |pages=299–320 |doi=10.35462/flv12.2 |issn=0046-435X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Rohlfs, Gerhard (1980), Le Gascon: études de philologie pyrénéenne. ''Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie'' 85</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Irigoyen |first=Alfonso |title=En torno a la toponimia vasca y circumpirenaica |language=es |trans-title=About Basque and circum-Pyrenean toponymy |year=1986 |publisher=[[Universidad de Deusto]]}}</ref>

Although a number of words of alleged Basque origin in the Spanish language are circulated (e.g. {{wikt-lang|es|anchoa}} 'anchovies', {{wikt-lang|es|bizarro}} 'dashing, gallant, spirited', {{wikt-lang|es|cachorro}} 'puppy', etc.), most of these have more easily explicable Romance etymologies or not particularly convincing derivations from Basque.<ref name=Trask/> Ignoring cultural terms, there is one strong [[loanword]] candidate, {{wikt-lang|eu|ezker}}, long considered the source of the Pyrenean and [[Iberian Romance]] words for "left (side)" ({{Wikt-lang|es|izquierdo}}, {{Wikt-lang|pt|esquerdo}}, {{Wikt-lang|ca|esquerre}}).<ref name=Trask/><ref name="DCECH">{{cite book |last1=Corominas |first1=Joan |last2=Pascual |first2=José A. |title=Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico |date=1980 |publisher=Gredos |location=Madrid |isbn=84-249-1365-5 |pages=469–472 |edition=2.ª reimpresión (marzo de 1989) |language=es |chapter=izquierdo}}</ref> The lack of initial {{IPA|/r/}} in Gascon could arguably be due to a Basque influence but this issue is under-researched.<ref name=Trask/>

The other most commonly claimed substrate influences:
* the [[Old Spanish]] merger of {{IPA|/v/}} and {{IPA|/b/}}.
* the simple five-vowel system.
* change of initial {{IPA|/f/}} into {{IPA|/h/}} (e.g. {{Lang|osp|fablar}} → {{Lang|es|hablar}}, with Old Basque lacking {{IPA|/f/}} but having {{IPA|/h/}}).
* [[voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant]] {{IPAblink|s̺}}, a sound transitional between [[Laminal consonant|laminodental]] {{IPAblink|s}} and [[Palatal consonant|palatal]] {{IPAblink|ʃ}}; this sound also influenced other [[Ibero-Romance languages]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]].

The first two features are common, widespread developments in many Romance (and non-Romance) languages.<ref name=Trask/>{{Specify|date=June 2016}} The change of {{IPA|/f/}} to {{IPA|/h/}} occurred historically only in a limited area ([[Gascony]] and [[Old Castile]]) that corresponds almost exactly to areas where heavy Basque bilingualism is assumed, and as a result has been widely postulated (and equally strongly disputed). Substrate theories are often difficult to prove (especially in the case of phonetically plausible changes like {{IPA|/f/}} to {{IPA|/h/}}). As a result, although many arguments have been made on both sides, the debate largely comes down to the a priori tendency on the part of particular linguists to accept or reject substrate arguments.

Examples of arguments against the substrate theory,<ref name=Trask/> and possible responses:
# Spanish did not fully shift {{IPA|/f/}} to {{IPA|/h/}}, instead, it has preserved {{IPA|/f/}} before consonants such as {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/ɾ/}} (cf {{Lang|es|fuerte}}, {{Lang|es|frente}}). (On the other hand, the occurrence of {{IPA|[f]}} in these words might be a secondary development from an earlier sound such as {{IPA|[h]}} or {{IPA|[ɸ]}} and learned words (or words influenced by written Latin form). Gascon does have {{IPA|/h/}} in these words, which might reflect the original situation.)
# Evidence of Arabic loanwords in Spanish points to {{IPA|/f/}} continuing to exist long after a Basque substrate might have had any effect on Spanish. (On the other hand, the occurrence of {{IPA|/f/}} in these words might be a late development. Many languages have come to accept new phonemes from other languages after a period of significant influence. For example, French lost {{IPA|/h/}} but later regained it as a result of Germanic influence, and has recently gained {{IPA|/ŋ/}} as a result of English influence.)
# Basque regularly developed Latin {{IPA|/f/}} into {{IPA|/b/}} or {{IPA|/p/}}.
# The same change also occurs in parts of Sardinia, Italy and the Romance languages of the Balkans where no Basque substrate can be reasonably argued for. (On the other hand, the fact that the same change might have occurred elsewhere independently does not disprove substrate influence. Furthermore, parts of [[Sardinia]] also have prothetic {{IPA|/a/}} or {{IPA|/e/}} before initial {{IPA|/r/}}, just as in Basque and Gascon, which may actually argue for some type of influence between both areas.)

Beyond these arguments, a number of [[nomadic]] groups of Castile are also said to use or have used Basque words in their jargon, such as the [[gacería]] in [[Segovia (province)|Segovia]], the [[mingaña]], the Galician [[fala dos arxinas]]<ref>Varela Pose, F.J. (2004)[http://revistas.ucm.es/fll/11389664/articulos/MADR0404110113A.PDF ''O latín dos canteiros en Cabana de Bergantiños''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100403084106/http://revistas.ucm.es/fll/11389664/articulos/MADR0404110113A.PDF |date=3 April 2010 }}. (pdf)[[Universidad Complutense de Madrid]]. Retrieved 11 June 2010.</ref> and the [[Asturias|Asturian]] [[Xíriga]].<ref name="Olaetxe">Olaetxe, J. Mallea. [http://basque.unr.edu/09/9.3/9.3.51t/9.3.51.03.mexico.htm "The Basques in the Mexican Regions: 16th–20th Centuries."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609204547/http://basque.unr.edu/09/9.3/9.3.51t/9.3.51.03.mexico.htm |date=9 June 2010 }} ''Basque Studies Program Newsletter'' No. 51 (1995).</ref>

Part of the [[Romani people|Romani]] community in the Basque Country speaks [[Erromintxela language|Erromintxela]], which is a rare [[mixed language]], with a [[Kalderash]] [[Romani language|Romani]] vocabulary and Basque grammar.{{sfn|Agirrezabal|2003}}

==== Basque pidgins ====
A number of Basque-based or Basque-influenced [[pidgin]]s have existed. In the 16th century, Basque sailors used a [[Basque–Icelandic pidgin]] in their contacts with Iceland.<ref name="Glossaria">Deen 1937.</ref> The [[Algonquian–Basque pidgin]] arose from contact between Basque [[whaling|whalers]] and the [[Algonquian peoples]] in the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] and [[Strait of Belle Isle]].{{sfn|Bakker|1987}}