Editing Brutalist architecture (section)

== On university campuses ==
[[File:The History Faculty, Cambridge (2354442890).jpg|thumb|right|[[James Stirling (architect)|James Stirling]]'s History Faculty Building (1968), [[University of Cambridge]]]]
Early examples of brutalist architecture in British universities include the 'beehives' at [[St John's College, Oxford]], (Michael Powers of the [[Architects' Co-Partnership]]; 1958–60)<ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1278860 |desc= ST JOHNS COLLEGE, THE BEEHIVES |grade=II |accessdate=15 February 2023}}</ref><ref name=Green/> and the extension to the [[Department of Architecture, University of Cambridge|department of architecture]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] in 1959 under the influence of [[Leslie Martin]], the head of the department, and designed by [[Colin St John Wilson]] and Alex Hardy, with participation by students at the university.<ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1049092 |desc= Nos. 1-12 Scroope Terrace, the 1959 rear extension to no. 1 Scroope Terrace and the railings to the front. |grade=II |accessdate=15 February 2023}}</ref> This inspired further brutalist buildings in Cambridge, including the Grade II listed University Centre and the Grade II listed [[Churchill College]]. The Grade II* listed History Faculty Building (1964–67) is described in its listing as "a distinctive example of a new approach to education buildings, from a period when the universities were at the forefront of architectural patronage".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/cambridge-in-concrete-the-boom-years-of-brutalism|title=Cambridge in Concrete: the boom years of Brutalism|date=3 May 2012|access-date=13 February 2023|website=University of Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1407952 |desc= Cambridge University Centre |grade=II |accessdate=13 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1227706 |desc= Central buildings Churchill College |grade=II |accessdate=13 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1380217 |desc= History Faculty Building |grade=II* |accessdate=13 February 2023}}</ref> It was the second building in architect [[James Stirling (architect)|James Stirling]]'s ''Red Trilogy'', which started with the [[University of Leicester Engineering Building]] (with [[James Gowan]]; 1959–63),<ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1074756 |desc= ENGINEERING BUILDING, UNIVERSITY OF LEICESTER |grade=II* |accessdate=15 February 2023}}</ref> designed to reflect the vernacular architecture of Leicester's factories<ref name=Green/> and sometimes regarded as the first [[post modern architecture|post modern]] building in Britain,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.storyofleicester.info/leisure-entertainment/university-of-leicester-engineering-building/|title=University of Leicester Engineering Building|access-date=25 February 2024|website=Story of Leicester|publisher= Leicester City Council}}</ref> 
and concluded with the [[Florey Building]] at [[Queen's College, Oxford]] (1966–71).<ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1393211 |desc= Florey Building with attached walls and abutments |grade=II* |accessdate=15 February 2023}}</ref>

[[File:Norfolk Terrance 5.jpg |thumb|[[Denys Lasdun]]'s 'ziggurats' (1968), [[University of East Anglia]]]]
[[File:Claire Isabel McGill Luce Auditorium 2025.jpg|thumb|The Claire Isabel McGill Luce Auditorium (1973-75), [[Silliman University]].]]
The building of new universities in the UK in the 1960s led to opportunities for brutalist architects. The first to be built was the [[University of Sussex]], designed by [[Basil Spence]], with the Grade I listed Falmer House (1960–62) as its centerpiece. The building has been described as a "meeting of Arts and Crafts with modernism", with features such as hand-made bricks that contrast with the pre-fabricated construction of other 1960s campuses, and colonnades of bare, board-marked concrete arches on brick piers inspired by the Colosseum.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=93MpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA106|pages=106–107|title=British Design: Tradition and Modernity after 1948|author1=Christopher Breward |author2= Fiona Fisher |author3=Ghislaine Wood|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|date=22 October 2015|isbn=978-1-4742-5622-3 }}</ref> It is also considered one of the "key Brutalist buildings" by the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.architecture.com/explore-architecture/brutalism|title=Brutalism|work=RIBA|access-date=16 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1381044 |desc= FALMER HOUSE INCLUDING MOAT WITHIN COURTYARD |grade=II* |accessdate=13 February 2023}}</ref> It has, in a reversal of the usual situation for brutalist architecture, received popular acclaim while being less liked by professional critics and is sometimes described as [[picturesque]] rather than brutalist.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pp9hEAAAQBAJ&pg=SA1-PA111|title= Revaluing Modern Architecture: Changing conservation culture|author= John Allan|pages=111|publisher= RIBA Publishing|date= 2022|isbn= 978-1-000-56466-2}}</ref>
[[Denys Lasdun]]'s work at the [[University of East Anglia]], including six linked halls of residence in Norfolk Terrace and four linked halls of residence in Suffolk Terrace (commonly referred to as the 'ziggurats') and the library and 'teaching wall' between them, is considered one of the finest examples of a 1960s brutalist university campus.<ref name="A-Z" /><ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1390647 |desc= Norfolk Terrace and attached walkways, at the University of East Anglia |grade=II* |accessdate=13 February 2023}} – {{National Heritage List for England|num = 1390646 |desc=Suffolk Terrace and adjoining walkway and stairs to rear, at the University of East Anglia|grade=II* |accessdate=25 February 2025}} – {{National Heritage List for England|num = 1390649 | desc= LIBRARY AND ATTACHED STAIRS TO GROUNDS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF EAST ANGLIA| grade=II |accessdate=25 February 2025}} – {{National Heritage List for England|num = 1390648 | desc= Teaching Wall and raised concourse, with attached walkways, at University of East Anglia, Earlham Road | grade=II |accessdate=25 February 2025}}</ref> The ziggurats were closed in 2023 as part of the [[2023 United Kingdom reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete crisis|reinforced autoclaved aerated concrete crisis]], with no date set for their refurbishment {{as of|February 2025|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c2559k27ylqo|title=Uni spends £2m fixing Raac but some halls stay shut|date=3 June 2024|author=Andy Trigg|work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.eveningnews24.co.uk/news/24926799.next-university-east-anglias-ziggurats/|title=What next for the University of East Anglia's ziggurats?|date=15 February 2025|author=David Hannant|work=[[Norwich Evening News]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250216173709/https://www.eveningnews24.co.uk/news/24926799.next-university-east-anglias-ziggurats/|archive-date=16 February 2025}}</ref> Another notable example is the [[Central Hall, University of York|Central Hall]] of the [[University of York]] (1966–68) with its [[Derwent College, York|surrounding colleges]] (1963–65) designed by [[Stirrat Johnson-Marshall]] and [[Andrew Derbyshire]] of Robert Matthew, Johnson-Marshall & Partners. The reinforced concrete of the Central Hall gives a contrast to the colleges, which were the first university buildings built using the [[Consortium of Local Authorities Special Programme|CLASP]] prefabricated system originally developed for school buildings. The same architectural practice would go on to build the universities of [[University of Bath|Bath]], [[University of Stirling|Stirling]] and [[University of Ulster|Ulster]].<ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1456551 |desc= Central Hall, University of York |grade=II |accessdate=13 February 2023}} – {{National Heritage List for England| num= 1457043 |desc= Former Langwith College, University of York |grade=II |accessdate=13 February 2023}} – {{National Heritage List for England| num= 1457040 |desc= Derwent College, University of York|grade=II |accessdate=13 February 2023}}</ref> The Grade II listed lecture block at [[Brunel University]] (John Heywood of [[Sheppard Robson|Richard Sheppard, Robson and Partners]]; 1965–68) was used as a location in [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s 1971 film ''[[A Clockwork Orange (film)|A Clockwork Orange]]''.<ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1400162 |desc= Lecture Theatre Block, Brunel University |grade=II |accessdate=13 February 2023}}</ref>  The central campus complex of the [[University of Essex]] (1964) was designed by Kenneth Capon of the Architects' Co-Partnership, with complementary concrete extensions by Patel Taylor matching the brutalist aesthetic in 2015.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.ribaj.com/products/university-of-essex|magazine=RIBA Journal|date=7 September 2016|author=Jan-Carlos Kucharek|title=University of Essex}}</ref>

[[File:Dunelm House & Kingsgate Bridge.jpg|thumb|[[Kingsgate Bridge]] (1963) and [[Dunelm House]] (1966), [[Durham University]]]]
A notable pairing of brutalist campus buildings is found at [[Durham University]], with [[Ove Arup]]'s Grade I-listed [[Kingsgate Bridge]] (1963), one of only six post-1961 buildings to have been listed as Grade I by 2017,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-40628918|title=England's youngest Grade I listed structures|date=17 July 2017|work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1119766 |desc= Kingsgate Bridge |grade=I |accessdate=13 February 2023}}</ref> and the Grade II-listed [[Dunelm House]] (Richard Raines of the Architects' Co-Partnership with Michael Powers as the partner-in-charge; 1964–66), described in its listing as "the foremost students' union building of the post-war era in England" but only saved from demolition in 2021 following a five-year campaign by the [[Twentieth Century Society]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/property/uk/no-grade-listed-buildings-would-treated-disdain-britains-brutalist/|work=The Telegraph|title='No other Grade I listed buildings would be treated with such disdain': why Britain's brutalist gems are under threat|author=Peter Watts|date=17 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/news/19431610.durham-universitys-brutalist-student-building-gets-grade-ii-listed-status/|title=Durham University's Brutalist student building gets Grade II listed status|first=Gavin|last=Engelbrecht|date=9 July 2021|work=The Northern Echo}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2017/feb/12/durham-university-dunelm-house-threat-of-demolition-brutalism|title=Save Dunelm House from the wrecking ball|author=Rowan Moore|date= 12 February 2017 |work=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{National Heritage List for England| num= 1477064 |desc= Dunelm House including landing stage, steps and attached walls |grade=II |accessdate=13 February 2023}}</ref> Dunelm House was designed to reflect the [[vernacular architecture]] of the city in the way its multiple levels cascade down the river bank, breaking up the bulk of the building.<ref name=Green>{{cite web|url=https://www.durham.ac.uk/media/durham-university/research-/research-centres/visual-arts-and-cultures-centre-for-cvac/Durhams-Modern-Moment-%C3%A2%C2%80%C2%93-Creating-Human-Community-in-Dunelm-House-and-on-Kingsgate-Bridge.pdf|title=Durham's Modern Moment – Creating Human Community in Dunelm House and on Kingsgate Bridge|author= Adrian Green|website=Durham University|access-date=25 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=About Town|url=https://durhamcity.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Bulletin-82.pdf|magazine=Bulletin|publisher=City of Durham Trust|issue=82|page=4|date=Spring 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cScTDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA101-IA3|title=The Story of Durham|pages=101–102|author= Douglas Pocock|publisher=The History Press|date=2013|isbn=978-0-7509-5300-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pp9hEAAAQBAJ&pg=SA1-PA113|title= Revaluing Modern Architecture: Changing conservation culture|author= John Allan|chapter=Case Study 4: Dunelm House, Durham|pages=113–122|publisher= RIBA Publishing|date= 2022|isbn= 978-1-000-56466-2}}</ref> This lead Pevsner to describe it as "Brutal by tradition but not brutal to the landscape"<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjHcM_LXhjEC&pg=PA233|page=233|title=County Durham|author1= Nikolaus Pevsner|author2= Elizabeth Williamson|publisher=Yale University Press|date=1983|isbn=0-300-09599-6 }}</ref> and to it being praised as a brutalist building that works well in its setting even by opponents of the style.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://unherd.com/newsroom/good-riddance-to-britains-brutalist-architecture/|title=Good Riddance to Britain's Brutalist Architecture|work=[[UnHerd]]|author=Niall Gooch|date=1 April 2022}}</ref>
[[File:Aerolínea LAN Ciudad Universitaria.JPG|thumb|343x343px|The [[Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires|Ciudad Universitaria]] of [[Buenos Aires]], seen from the [[Río de la Plata]]]]
The [[University of Buenos Aires]], one of the largest and most prestigious of Latin America, built a new campus during the 1960s,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Guerri |first=Claudio |date=June 2020 |title=Editorial |journal=La Tadeo DeArte |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=8–19 |doi=10.21789/24223158.1675 |issn=2422-3158|doi-access=free }}</ref> the [[Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires|Ciudad Universitaria]]. The project followed a proposal by [[Le Corbusier]] from 1938, however, out of the over twenty envisioned buildings, only two were completed as they were originally planned.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Farias |first1=Miguel Angel |last2=Medici |first2=Silvia Andrea |last3=Squassi |first3=Aldo Fabián |last4=Sánchez |first4=Gabriel Antonio |date=2020 |title=Unmet dental treatment need impairs quality of life in Hepatitis C Virus-infected patients |journal=Stomatology Edu Journal |volume=7 |issue=3 |pages=191–196 |doi=10.25241/stomaeduj.2020.7(3).art.5 |issn=2360-2406|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Nowadays the Ciudad Universitaria houses the [[Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences]] and the [[Faculty of Architecture, Design and Urbanism, University of Buenos Aires|Faculty of Architecture, Design and Urbanism]]. Also [[Parque de la Memoria]] (a memorial for the victims of the [[Dirty War|1976-1983 dictatorship]]) was built in the area of the original plan, a train station, a new building for the Institute of Physiology, Molecular Biology and Neurosciences, and a building for Data Science were also built.

One of the earliest brutalist buildings in the US was [[Paul Rudolph (architect)|Paul Rudolph]]'s 1963 [[Rudolph Hall|Art and Architecture Building]] at [[Yale University]] where, as department chair, he was both client and architect, giving him a unique freedom to explore new directions.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dezeen.com/2014/09/26/yale-art-and-architecture-building-paul-rudolph-brutalism/|title=Brutalist buildings: Yale Art and Architecture Building, Connecticut by Paul Rudolph|work=Dezeen|date=26 September 2014|author= Jessica Mairs}}</ref> Rudolph's 1964 design for the [[University of Massachusetts Dartmouth]] is a rare example of an entire campus designed in the brutalist style,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://umassdtorch.com/2018/11/02/umass-dartmouths-brutalist-style-is-brutal/|title=UMass Dartmouth's Brutalist Style is brutal|author= Eric Sousa|date=2 November 2018|work=The Torch}}</ref> and was considered by him to be "the most complete realisation of his experiments with urbanism and monumentality".<ref>{{cite book|page=128|title=The Architecture of Paul Rudolph|author=Paul Rohan|date=10 July 2014|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-14939-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MkmPAwAAQBAJ}}</ref> [[Walter Netsch]] similarly designed the entire University of Illinois-Chicago Circle Campus (now the East Campus of the [[University of Illinois at Chicago]]) under a single, unified brutalist design.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uic.edu/depts/oaa/walkingtour/Netsch_Walking_Tour_03.pdf|title= Historic Netsch Campus at UIC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527164432/http://www.uic.edu/depts/oaa/walkingtour/Netsch_Walking_Tour_03.pdf|archive-date=27 May 2010|access-date= 31 December 2010}}</ref> Netsch also designed the brutalist [[Regenstein Library|Joseph Regenstein Library]] for the [[University of Chicago]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://architecture.uchicago.edu/locations/joseph_regenstein_library/|title=Joseph Regenstein Library|website=Architecture at the University of Chicago|access-date=14 February 2023}}</ref> and the [[Northwestern University Library]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.library.northwestern.edu/libraries-collections/university-library/|title=University Library|access-date=14 February 2023|website=Northwestern}}</ref> [[Crafton Hills College]] in California was designed by [[Mid-century modern|desert modern]] architect [[E. Stewart Williams]] in 1965 and built between 1966 and 1976. Williams' brutalist design contrasts with the steep terrain of the area and was chosen in part because it provided a [[firebreak]] from the surrounding environment.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kopelk|first1=William|title=E. Stewart Williams: A Tribute to His Work and Life|date=2005|publisher=Palm Springs Preservation Foundation|location=Palm Springs, CA}}</ref>

[[File:Geisel-Library.jpg|thumb|[[William Pereira]]'s [[Geisel Library]] (1970), [[University of California, San Diego]]]]
One of the most famous brutalist buildings in the United States is [[Geisel Library]] at the [[University of California, San Diego]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gq.com/story/9-brutalist-wonders-of-the-architecture-world|title=The 9 Brutalist Wonders of the Architecture World|author=Brad Dunning|work=[[GQ]]|date=29 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/most-beautiful-brutalist-buildings-world|title=The 17 Most Beautiful Brutalist Buildings in the World|author=Jessica Cherner|date=6 April 2022|work=Architectural Digest}}</ref> Designed by [[William Pereira]] and built 1969–70, it is said to "occup[y] a fascinating nexus between brutalism and futurism" but was originally intended as a modernist building in steel and glass before cost considerations meant the structural elements were redesigned in concrete and moved to the outside of the building.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archdaily.com/566563/ad-classics-geisel-library-william-l-pereira-and-associates|title= AD Classics: Geisel Library / William L. Pereira & Associates|author=David Langdon|work=Arch Daily|date= 11 November 2014|access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref> [[Evans Woollen III]]'s brutalist [[Clowes Memorial Hall]], a performing arts facility that opened in 1963 on the campus of [[Butler University]] in [[Indianapolis]], was praised for its bold and dramatic design.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Megan Fernandez| title =The Pillar: Evans Woollen | journal =Indianapolis Monthly | page=68 | location =Indianapolis, Indiana | date =June 2010| url = https://www.indianapolismonthly.com/features/the-pillar-evans-woollen/| access-date =18 December 2017}} See also: {{cite journal| author=Philip J. Trounstine| title =Evans Woollen: Struggles of a 'Good Architect'| journal =[Indianapolis] Star Magazine | page=23 | location =Indianapolis, Indiana | date =9 May 1976}}</ref> The [[University of Minnesota]]'s West Bank campus features the [[Rarig Center]], a performing arts venue by Ralph Rapson from 1971 that has been called "the best example in the Twin Cities of the style called Brutalism".<ref>{{cite book|last=Millett|first=Larry|title=AIA Guide to the Twin Cities|year=2007|publisher=Minnesota Historical Society|location=Saint Paul, Minnesota|page=148|isbn=978-0-87351-540-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T9axsT5T8fcC&pg=PA148}}</ref> [[Faner Hall (SIUC)|Faner Hall]] at [[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]] has long been controversial for its use of brutalism and has been considered an eyesore on campus,<ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Dell |first=Les |date=2022-03-18 |title=SIU's Faner Hall myths and mystique |url=https://thesouthern.com/news/local/siu/sius-faner-hall-myths-and-mystique/article_a57d9678-42e5-5f31-936f-80cdd3a8efe3.html |access-date=2024-04-09 |website=Southern Illinoisan |language=en}}</ref> deemed to have a "facade only a mother could love" by the university itself.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Faner Hall {{!}} College of Liberal Arts {{!}} SIU |url=https://cola.siu.edu//about/faner-hall.php |access-date=2024-04-09 |website=College of Liberal Arts |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Lauinger Library|Joseph Mark Lauinger Library]], the main library of the [[Georgetown University Library]] System, was designed by [[John Carl Warnecke]] and opened in 1970. Originally conceived with a traditional design similar to [[List of Georgetown University buildings|other buildings at Georgetown University]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2020-02-03 |title=Eight Things You May (or May Not) Know about Lauinger Library |url=https://library.georgetown.edu/exhibition/eight-things-you-may-or-may-not-know-about-lauinger-library |access-date=13 May 2023 |website=[[Georgetown University Library]]}}</ref> the final design of the Lauinger Library embraces brutalism and was intended as a modern interpretation of the nearby [[Healy Hall]], a [[Romanesque architecture|Flemish Romanesque]] building.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Giesemann |first=Suzanne R. |title=The Priest and the Medium |publisher=Hay House Inc. |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4019-2615-1 |pages=73 |language=en}}</ref> The building once received the [[American Institute of Architects#Cosponsored programs|Award of Merit]] by the [[American Institute of Architects]] in 1976 for distinguished accomplishment in library architecture.<ref name=":1" /> However, in recent years, as public attitudes towards brutalism have shifted, the library has been referred to as one of the "ugliest" buildings in [[Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)|Georgetown]] and [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Curran |first=Pat |date=2014-08-29 |title=Lauinger: The Past, Present and Future of Georgetown's 'Ugly' Library |url=https://thehoya.com/lauinger/ |access-date=13 May 2023|website=[[The Hoya]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Love for Lau |url=https://library.georgetown.edu/showcase/entries/love-lau |access-date=13 May 2023 |website=[[Georgetown University Library]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Garfield |first=Leanna |title=The ugliest building in every US state, according to people who live there |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/ugliest-buildings-in-the-us-2018-1 |access-date=13 May 2023 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[File:Robarts Library, UofT (2001) (50945599301).jpg|thumb|The [[Robarts Library]] (1974), [[University of Toronto]]]]
Examples of brutalist university campuses can be found in other countries as well. The [[Robarts Library]] at the [[University of Toronto]] was designed by Warner, Burns, Toan & Lunde and built between 1968 and 1973. Although it has been called "a crowning achievement of the brutalist movement", its opening in 1974 came after public sentiment had turned against brutalism, leading to it being condemned as "a blunder on the grandest scale".<ref>{{cite web |author=David Langdon |date=9 March 2015 |title=AD Classics: Robarts Library / Warner, Burns, Toan & Lunde |url=https://www.archdaily.com/605338/ad-classics-robarts-library-warner-burns-toan-and-lunde |access-date=15 February 2023 |work=Arch Daily}}</ref> In Turkey, the [[Middle East Technical University]] campus in [[Ankara]] is a notable example of brutalist architecture, designed by [[Behruz Çinici|Behruz]] and [[Altuğ Çinici]] in the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zelef |first=Mustafa Haluk |date=2012-01-01 |title=Brutalism and METU Department of Architecture Building in Ankara |url=https://open.metu.edu.tr/handle/11511/79609 |journal=ACEE Architecture Civil Engineering Environment |language=tr |issn=1899-0142}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Brutalist architecture in Islamic Countries on the example of the Middle East Technical University Campus in Ankara |url=https://www.architectus.pwr.edu.pl/en/articles/brutalist-architecture-in-islamic-countries-on-the-example-of-the-middle-east-technical-university-campus-in-ankara/ |access-date=2025-04-15 |website=Politechnika Wrocławska |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Yalav-Heckeroth |first=Feride |date=2024-02-01 |title=Brutalism, bureaucracy and beauty: Why Turkey's capital city isn't 'gray' |url=https://edition.cnn.com/travel/ankara-turkey/index.html |access-date=2025-04-15 |website=CNN |language=en |quote="And, between 1961 and 1980, the city obtained one of its most important university campuses, the Middle East Technical University, one of Turkey’s key works of Brutalist architecture - the modernist style that uses exposed concrete or brick - designed by Behruz and Altuğ Çinici."}}</ref> [[Rand Afrikaans University]] in Johannesburg, South Africa (now [[Kingsway Campus Auckland Park]], [[University of Johannesburg]]) is largely brutalist, designed as an expression of Afrikaans identity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theheritageportal.co.za/review/first-comprehensive-review-architecture-early-apartheid-pretoria|title=First comprehensive review of the architecture of early apartheid in Pretoria|author=Kathy Munro|website=The Heritage Portal|date=5 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/johannesburg-segregated-city|title=Johannesburg the Segregated city|work=South African History Online|accessdate=14 February 2023}}</ref> Several universities in Southeast Asia also feature brutalist designs, including those at the [[Ho Chi Minh City Medicine and Pharmacy University|Ho Chi Minh City Medicine and Pharmaceutical University]], the [[Royal University of Phnom Penh]], and the [[:vi:Trường Cao đẳng Công nghiệp Huế|Industrial College of Hue]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mark |date=2018-05-05 |title=Brutalist and Modernist architecture in Southeast Asia |url=https://www.kathmanduandbeyond.com/brutalist-modernist-architecture-southeast-asia/ |access-date=13 May 2023 |website=Kathmandu & Beyond |language=en-GB}}</ref> <!-- PLEASE, THIS IS NOT A LAUNDRY LIST OF EVERY BRUTALIST BUILDING ON CAMPUSES. THERE ARE HUNDREDS. THERE IS ONLY ROOM HERE FOR A SMALL NUMBER OF THE MOST IMPORTANT EXAMPLES OF ENTIRE BRUTALIST CAMPUSES OR SECTIONS OF CAMPUSES. You can add your favourite brutalist campus building to the "List of brutalist structures" article instead if they aren't there already. -->