Editing Calvary (section)

==Church of the Holy Sepulchre==
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[[File:Jerusalem Christian Quarter.jpg|thumb|The Holy Sepulchre (1) in the [[Christian Quarter]] of [[Jerusalem]]]]

The traditional location of Golgotha derives from its identification by [[Helena, mother of Constantine I|Queen Mother Helena]], mother of [[Constantine the Great]], in 325. Less than {{convert|45|m|ft|-1|sp=us}} away, Helena also identified the location of the tomb of Jesus and claimed to have discovered the [[True Cross]]; her son, Constantine, then built the Church of the Holy Sepulchre around the whole site. In 333, the author of the ''[[Itinerarium Burdigalense]]'', entering from the east, described the result:

{{Blockquote|On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence is a vault [crypta] wherein his body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a [[basilica]]; that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty.<ref>''[[Itinerarium Burdigalense]]'', pp. 593, 594</ref>}}

Various archeologists have proposed alternative sites within the Church as locations of the crucifixion. Nazénie Garibian de Vartavan argued that the now-buried Constantinian basilica's altar was built over the site.<ref name="Garibian de Vartavan 2008">{{Cite book|last=Garibian de Vartavan|first=N.|title=La Jérusalem Nouvelle et les premiers sanctuaires chrétiens de l'Arménie. Méthode pour l'étude de l'église comme temple de Dieu|location=London|publisher=Isis Pharia|year=2008|isbn=978-0-9527827-7-3}}</ref>

===Temple to Aphrodite===
[[File:Roman Jerusalem.PNG|thumb|left|Jerusalem after being rebuilt by [[Hadrian]]: Two main east–west roads were built, as well as two main north–south roads.]]

Prior to Helena's identification, the site had been a [[temple]] to [[Aphrodite]]. Constantine's construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure, and the ''Rotunda'' and [[cloister]] (which was replaced after the 12th century by the present ''[[Katholikon|Catholicon]]'' and ''Calvary chapel'') roughly overlap with the temple building itself; the [[basilica]] church Constantine built over the remainder of the enclosure was destroyed at the turn of the 11th century, and has not been replaced. [[Sacred Tradition|Christian tradition]] claims that the location had originally been a Christian place of veneration, but that Hadrian had deliberately buried these Christian sites and built his own temple on top, on account of his alleged hatred for Christianity.<ref>[[Eusebius]], ''Life of Constantine'', 3:26</ref>

There is certainly evidence that {{circa|160}}, at least as early as 30 years after [[Aelia Capitolina|Hadrian's temple]] had been built, Christians associated it with the site of ''Golgotha''; [[Melito of Sardis]], an influential mid-2nd century bishop in the region, described the location as "in the middle of the street, in the middle of the city",<ref>Melito of Sardis, ''On Easter''</ref> which matches the position of Hadrian's temple within the mid-2nd century city.

The Romans typically built a city according to a [[Hippodamus|Hippodamian]] [[grid plan]]&nbsp;– a north–south [[arterial road]], the [[Cardo]] (which is now the Suq Khan-ez-Zeit), and an east–west arterial road, the [[Decumanus Maximus]] (which is now the [[Via Dolorosa]]).<ref name="Warwick Ball">{{Cite book|last=Ball|first=Warwick|title=Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire|page=294}}</ref> The [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] would traditionally be located on the intersection of the two roads, with the main temples adjacent.<ref name="Warwick Ball" /> However, due to the obstruction posed by the Temple Mount, as well as the [[Legio X Fretensis|Tenth Legion]] encampment on the Western Hill, Hadrian's city had two ''Cardo'', two ''Decumanus Maximus'', two forums,<ref name="Warwick Ball" /> and several temples. The Western Forum (now the [[Muristan]]) is located on the crossroads of the West Cardo and what is now El-Bazar/David Street, with the Temple of Aphrodite adjacent, on the intersection of the Western Cardo and the [[Via Dolorosa]]. The Northern Forum is located north of the Temple Mount, on the junction of the Via Dolorosa and the Eastern Cardo (the [[Tyropoeon Valley|Tyropoeon]]), adjacent to the Temple of [[Jupiter Capitolinus]], intentionally built atop the Temple Mount.<ref name="Clermont-Ganneau I">{{Cite book|last=Clermont-Ganneau|first=Charles|title=Archaeological researches in Palestine during the years 1873–1874}}</ref> Another popular holy site that Hadrian converted to a pagan temple was the [[Pool of Bethesda]], possibly referenced to in the fifth chapter of the Gospel of John,<ref>{{bibleverse||John|5:1–18|}}</ref><ref name="MurphyOConnor">[[Jerome Murphy-O'Connor]], ''The Holy Land'', (2008), p. 29</ref> on which was built the Temple of [[Asclepius]] and [[Serapis]]. While the positioning of the Temple of Aphrodite may be, in light of the common [[Colonia (Roman)|Colonia]] layout, entirely unintentional, Hadrian is known to have concurrently built pagan temples on top of other holy sites in Jerusalem as part of an overall "[[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]]" policy.<ref name="Schäfer2003">{{cite book|author=Peter Schäfer|title=The Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish revolt against Rome|url={{Google books |id=1TA-Fg4wBnUC |page=36 |plainurl=yes }} |access-date=4 December 2011|year=2003|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|isbn=978-3-16-148076-8|pages=36–}}</ref><ref name="erp-places">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310053428/http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm|archive-date=10 March 2008|title=Palestine: History|access-date=18 April 2007|date=22 February 2007|last=Lehmann|first=Clayton Miles|encyclopedia=The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces|publisher=The University of South Dakota}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Cohen|first=Shaye J. D.|chapter=Judaism to Mishnah: 135–220 C.E|title=Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development|editor=Hershel Shanks|year=1996|location=Washington DC|page=196|publisher=Biblical Archaeology Society}}</ref><ref>Emily Jane Hunt, {{Google books |id=Dn5ERgK0djMC |page=7 |title=Christianity in the second century: the case of Tatian}}, Psychology Press, 2003, p. 7</ref><ref>E. Mary Smallwood {{Google books |id=nw0VAAAAIAAJ |page=460 |title=The Jews under Roman rule: from Pompey to Diocletian, a study in political relations}} Brill, 1981, p. 460.</ref>

Archaeological excavations under the Church of the Holy Sepulchre have revealed Christian pilgrims' graffiti, dating from the period that the Temple of Aphrodite was still present, of a ship, a common early Christian symbol<ref name=newadvent>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10724a.htm Nave] ''New Advent encyclopedia'', accessed 25 March 2014.</ref><ref>[http://www.jesuswalk.com/christian-symbols/ship.htm Ship as a Symbol of the Church (Bark of St. Peter)] Jesus Walk, accessed 11 February 2015.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sidneyherald.com/archives/ship-hangs-in-balance-at-pella-evangelical-lutheran-church/article_9485d09f-e314-5f3e-b071-0cf8b2059dd7.html|title=Ship hangs in balance at Pella Evangelical Lutheran Church|date=10 June 2008|work=Sidney ([[Montana]]) Herald|access-date=3 January 2016}}</ref> and the etching "DOMINVS IVIMVS", meaning "Lord, we went",<ref name="Clermont-Ganneau II">{{Cite book|last=Clermont-Ganneau|first=Charles|title=Archaeological researches in Palestine during the years 1873–1874|page=103}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://followinghadrian.com/2014/11/05/exploring-aelia-capitolina-hadrians-jerusalem/|title=Exploring Aelia Capitolina, Hadrian's Jerusalem|last=followinghadrian|date=5 November 2014|access-date=28 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218124758/https://followinghadrian.com/2014/11/05/exploring-aelia-capitolina-hadrians-jerusalem/|archive-date=18 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> lending possible support to the statement by Melito of Sardis' asserting that early Christians identified Golgotha as being in the middle of Hadrian's city, rather than outside.

===Rockface===
[[File:Golgotha Stone Chapel of Adam.jpg|thumb|Natural stone of Golgotha in the Chapel of Adam below site]]

During 1973–1978 restoration works and excavations inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and under the nearby [[Muristan]], it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white Meleke [[limestone]] was struck;<ref name="Hesemann170">{{Cite book|title=Die Jesus-Tafel|last=Hesemann|first=Michael|publisher=Freiburg|year=1999|isbn=3-451-27092-7|page=170|language=de|author-link=Michael Hesemann}}</ref> surviving parts of the quarry to the north-east of the chapel of St. Helena are now accessible from within the chapel (by permission). Inside the church is a rock, about 7&nbsp;m long by 3&nbsp;m wide by 4.8&nbsp;m high,<ref name="Hesemann170"/> that is traditionally believed to be all that now remains visible of ''Golgotha''; the design of the church means that the ''Calvary Chapel'' contains the upper foot or so of the rock, while the remainder is in the chapel beneath it (known as the ''tomb of Adam''). [[Virgilio Canio Corbo|Virgilio Corbo]], a [[Franciscan]] priest and archaeologist, present at the excavations, suggested that from the city the little hill (which still exists) could have looked like a skull.<ref name="HesemannHill">Hesemann 1999, p. 170: "Von der Stadt aus muß er tatsächlich wie eine Schädelkuppe ausgesehen haben," and p. 190: a sketch; and p. 172: a sketch of the geological findings by C. Katsimbinis, 1976: "der Felsblock ist zu 1/8 unterhalb des Kirchenbodens, verbreitert sich dort auf etwa 6,40 Meter und verläuft weiter in die Tiefe"; and p. 192, a sketch by Corbo, 1980: Golgotha is distant 10 meters outside from the southwest corner of the Martyrion-basilica</ref>

During a 1986 repair to the floor of the ''Calvary Chapel'' by the art historian George Lavas and architect Theo Mitropoulos, a round slot of {{convert|11.5|cm|1|abbr=on}} diameter was discovered in the rock, partly open on one side (Lavas attributes the open side to accidental damage during his repairs);<ref name="Lavas">George Lavas, ''The Rock of Calvary'', published (1996) in ''The Real and Ideal Jerusalem in Jewish, Christian and Islamic Art'' (proceedings of the 5th International Seminar in Jewish Art), pp. 147–150</ref> although the dating of the slot is uncertain, and could date to Hadrian's temple of Aphrodite, Lavas suggested that it could have been the site of the crucifixion, as it would be strong enough to hold in place a wooden trunk of up to {{convert|2.5|m}} in height (among other things).<ref>Hesemann 1999, pp. 171–172: "....Georg Lavas and ... Theo Mitropoulos, ... cleaned off a thick layer of rubble and building material from one to 45<!--sic!--> cm thick that covered the actual limestone. The experts still argue whether this was the work of the architects of Hadrian, who aimed thereby to adapt the rock better to the temple plan, or whether it comes from 7th century cleaning....When the restorers progressed to the lime layer and the actual rock....they found they had removed <!--sic--> a circular slot of 11.5&nbsp;cm diameter".</ref><ref>Vatican-magazin.com, Vatican 3/2007, pp. 12/13; [https://web.archive.org/web/20110717185434/http://www.vatican-magazin.com/archiv/2007/03-2007/titel.pdf Vatican 3/2007, p. 11, here p. 3 photo No. 4, quite right], photo by Paul Badde: der steinere Ring auf dem Golgothafelsen.<!--see also here page 4 (=Vatican 3/2007, pp.12-13): "Dr. Mitropoulos: Als wir den Gipfel des Golgatha freilegten ... hatte den Ort schon seit achthundert Jahren kein Auge mehr gesehen; er war ganz mit Schutt bedeckt und darüber mit Marmor. ... und zeigte auf einen zerbrochenen steinernen Ring in einer Mulde des Felsblocks aus aschgrauem Kalkstein"--></ref> The same restoration work also revealed a crack running across the surface of the rock, which continues down to the ''Chapel of Adam'';<ref name="Lavas"/> the crack is thought by archaeologists to have been a result of the quarry workmen encountering a flaw in the rock.{{citation needed|date=February 2024}}

Based on the late 20th century excavations of the site, there have been a number of attempted reconstructions of the profile of the cliff face. These often attempt to show the site as it would have appeared to Constantine. However, as the ground level in Roman times was about {{convert|4|–|5|ft}} lower and the site housed Hadrian's temple to Aphrodite, much of the surrounding rocky slope must have been removed long before Constantine built the church on the site. The height of the ''Golgotha'' rock itself would have caused it to jut through the platform level of the Aphrodite temple, where it would be clearly visible. The reason for Hadrian not cutting the rock down is uncertain, but Virgilio Corbo suggested that a statue, probably of Aphrodite, was placed on it,<ref>Virgilio Corbo, ''The Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem'' (1981)</ref> a suggestion also made by [[Jerome]]. Some archaeologists have suggested that prior to Hadrian's use, the rock outcrop had been a ''nefesh'' – a Jewish funeral monument, equivalent to the [[stele]].<ref>Dan Bahat, ''Does the Holy Sepulchre Church Mark the Burial of Jesus?'', in ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]]'' May/June 1986</ref>

===Pilgrimages to Constantine's Church===
[[File:Jesus in Golgotha by Theophanes the Cretan.jpg|thumb|left|[[Icon]] of Jesus being led to Golgotha, 16th century, [[Theophanes the Cretan]] ([[Stavronikita]] [[Monastery]], [[Mount Athos]])]]
The [[Itinerarium Burdigalense]] speaks of Golgotha in 333: "... On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence<!--!!--> is a vault (crypta) wherein His body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a basilica, that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty",<!-- Latin original: A sinistra autem parte est monticulus golgotha, ubi dominus crucifixus est. Inde quasi ad lapidem missum est cripta, ubi corpus eius positum fuit et tertia die resurrexit; ibidem modo iussu constantini imperatoris basilica facta est, id est dominicum, mirae pulchritudinis habens.  --><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/pilgr/bord/10Bord07bJerus.html#Golgotha|title=Bordeaux Pilgrim – Text 7b: Jerusalem (second part)|access-date=2011-10-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513215942/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/pilgr/bord/10Bord07bJerus.html#Golgotha|archive-date=2016-05-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Cyril of Jerusalem]], a distinguished theologian of the early Church, and eyewitness to the early days of Constantine's edifice, speaks of Golgotha in eight separate passages, sometimes as near to the church where he and his listeners assembled:<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |title=St. Cyril of Jerusalem| page =51, note 313 |access-date=2007-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616164151/http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |archive-date=2007-06-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> "Golgotha, the holy hill standing above us here, bears witness to our sight: the Holy Sepulchre bears witness, and the stone which lies there to this day."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |title=Cyril, Catechetical Lectures, year 347, lecture X|page=160, note 1221 |access-date=2007-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616164151/http://www.pravoslavnaolomouc.cz/ZIP/OTCO/PNC/PN7.PDF |archive-date=2007-06-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> And just in such a way the [[Egeria (pilgrim)|pilgrim Egeria]] often reported in 383: "… the church, built by Constantine, which is situated in Golgotha…"<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/m/mcclure/etheria/etheria.htm ''Iteneraria Egeriae''], ccel.org. Accessed February 25, 2024.</ref> and also bishop [[Eucherius of Lyon]] wrote to the island presbyter Faustus in 440: "Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium, the place of the Lord's passion, in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was."<ref>[http://homepages.luc.edu/~avande1/jerusalem/sources/eucherius.htm Letter To The Presbyter Faustus] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613200112/http://homepages.luc.edu/~avande1/jerusalem/sources/eucherius.htm |date=2008-06-13 }}, by Eucherius. "What is reported, about the site of the city Jerusalem and also of Judaea"; ''Epistola Ad Faustum Presbyterum.'' "Eucherii, Quae fertur, de situ Hierusolimitanae urbis atque ipsius Iudaeae." ''Corpus Scriptorum Eccles. Latinorum'' XXXIX Itinera Hierosolymitana, Saeculi IIII–VIII, P. Geyer, 1898</ref> ''[[Breviarius de Hierosolyma]]'' reports in 530: "From there (the middle of the basilica), you enter into Golgotha, where there is a large court. Here the Lord was crucified. All around that hill, there are silver screens."<ref><!--Requires some navigation. Type in google: jerusalem breviary brevarius-->Whalen, Brett Edward, Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages, p. 40, University of Toronto Press,  2011; {{ISBN|978-1-4426-0199-4}}; Iteneraria et alia geographica, Corpus Christianorum Series Latina, vol. 175 (Turnhout, [[Brepols]] 1965), pp. 109–112</ref> (See also: [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] in 338.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iv.vi.iii.xxxv.html|title=NPNF2-01. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine – Christian Classics Ethereal Library}}</ref>)
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