Editing Caudillo (section)

==Early nineteenth-century ''caudillos''==
There were a number of strongmen who went beyond raw struggles for power and its spoils and established "integrative dictatorships". These regimes attempted to curtail centrifugal forces, often termed "federalism", where regions or states of a nation-state had more autonomy and instead established the hegemony of the central government. According to political scientist [[Peter H. Smith]], these include [[Juan Manuel de Rosas]] in Argentina; [[Diego Portales]] of Chile, whose system lasted nearly a century; and [[Porfirio Díaz]] of Mexico. Rosas and Díaz were military men, who continued to rely on armed forces to maintain themselves in power.<ref name=s20/>

=== Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean ===
[[File:Santaanna1.JPG|thumb|[[Antonio López de Santa Anna|Santa Anna]] in a Mexican military uniform]]
This region was vulnerable to stronger powers, particularly the United States and the United Kingdom. Cuba remained in the hands of the Spanish crown until 1898. The United States seized a huge part of  Mexico. Britain attempted to set up a protectorate on the Mosquito Coast of Central America. The two strongmen of this early century were [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]] in Mexico and [[Rafael Carrera]] in Guatemala.<ref>[[#Henderson|Henderson]], p. 113.</ref>
[[File:FMorazan.jpg|thumb|[[Francisco Morazán]], president of the [[Federal Republic of Central America]], 1829–1839]]

[[Mexico]] began its revolt against Spain in 1810, gaining independence in 1821. Political divisions in the post-independence period were labeled federalist, seeking a weak central government and often associated with [[Liberalism in Mexico|liberalism]], and centralist, who sought a strong central state and defense of traditional institutional structures, particularly the Mexican Army and the Roman Catholic Church. Many regional strongmen were in the Federalist-Liberal camp, which supported local control and the continuation of their power.<ref>"The Roots of Caudillismo", p. 33 in [[#Hamil|Hamill]].</ref>

The quintessential Mexican ''caudillo'', who gained national power for decades, was Santa Anna, who was initially a Liberal but became a Conservative and sought strengthening of the central government. Following the [[Mexican–American War]], regional caudillos such as [[Juan Álvarez]] of the state of Guerrero and [[Santiago Vidaurri]] of [[Nuevo León]]-[[Coahuila]] ousted Santa Anna in the [[Plan of Ayutla|Revolution of Ayutla]], bringing Liberals to power. Álvarez follows the pattern of the "folk ''caudillo''", whom historian [[François Chevalier (historian)|François Chevalier]] calls a "good ''cacique'', [who] protected the mainly indigenous and mestizo peasants of Guerrero, who in turn gave him their loyalty".<ref>"The Roots of Caudillismo", p. 33 in [[#Hamil|Hamill]].</ref> Álvarez briefly served as President of Mexico, returning to his home state, leaving ideological liberals to institute the era of [[La Reforma]].<ref>Laurens Ballard Perry, ''Juárez and Díaz: Machine Politics in Mexico''. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press 1978, pp. 5–6.</ref> 

During the era of the Mexican Reform and the [[Second French intervention in Mexico|French intervention in Mexico]], there were a number of generals who had regional personal followings. Important figures whose local power had consequences nationally included [[Mariano Escobedo]] in [[San Luis Potosí]]; [[Ramón Corona]] in [[Jalisco]] and [[Durango]]; and [[Porfirio Díaz]] in parts of Veracruz, Puebla, and Oaxaca. There were other ''caudillos'' whose power was more local but still important, including Gerónimo Treviño and Francisco Narajo in Nuevo León, Servando Canales and [[Juan Cortina]] in [[Tamaulipas]], [[Florencio Antillón]] in Guanajuato, Ignacio Pesqueira in [[Sonora]], [[Luis Terrazas]] in [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]], and [[Manuel Lozada]] in [[Tepic]].<ref>Laurens Ballard Perry, ''Juárez and Díaz: Machine Politics in Mexico''. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press 1978, pp. 5–6.</ref> 

Following the defeat of the French in 1867, the government of [[Benito Juárez]] and his successor following his death, [[Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada]], faced opponents who objected to their increasingly Centralist administrations. Those opponents gravitated to supporting Díaz, a military hero of the French intervention, who challenged Juárez and Lerdo by attempting rebellions, the second of which, the [[Plan of Tuxtepec]], was successful in 1876. Juárez and Lerdo removed some ''caudillos'' from office, but this prompted them to rebel. These included Trinidad García de la Cadena in [[Zacatecas]], Luis Mier y Terán in [[Veracruz]], Juan Haro in [[Tampico]], [[Juan N. Méndez]] in Puebla, Vicente Jiménez in Guerrero, and [[Juan Cortina]] in [[Matamoros, Tamaulipas|Matamoros]]. "That they slowly gathered around Porfirio Díaz is the story of the rise of Porfirian Mexico."<ref>Perry, ''Juárez and Díaz'', p. 32.</ref>

=== Bolivarian republics: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela ===
[[Simón Bolívar]], the foremost leader of independence in Spanish America, attempted to recreate the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]] in the nation of [[Gran Colombia]]. As with other areas of Spanish America, centrifugal forces caused the country to fragment into separate nation-states. Bolivar saw the need for political stability, which could be put into effect with a [[President for life|president-for-life]] and the power to name his successor.<ref>David Bushnell, "Simón Bolívar" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 1, pp. 360–62.</ref> 

In 1828, his supporters called on him to assume dictatorial powers and "save the republic". The political turmoil continued and Bolívar stepped down in 1830, going into self-imposed exile and dying shortly thereafter. "He is revered as the one person who made the greatest contribution to Spanish American independence" and admired by both the political left for opposing slavery and distrust of the U.S. and the right, which admires his [[authoritarianism]].<ref>David Bushnell, "Simón Bolívar" in ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture'', vol. 1, pp. 360–62.</ref>

Veterans of the wars of independence assumed the leadership of the newly created nation-states, each with a new constitution. Despite constitutions and ideological labels of liberals and conservatives, personalist and opportunistic leaders dominated the early nineteenth century. As with Mexico and Central America, the political turmoil and penury of the governments of the Bolivarian republics prevented foreign investors from risking their capital there.<ref>[[#Henderson|Henderson]], p. 119.</ref>

One caudillo who was progressive for his time was [[Bolivia]]'s [[Manuel Isidoro Belzu]], who served as the fourteenth president from 1848 until 1855. The former president, [[José Miguel de Velasco Franco|Jose Miguel de Velasco]], executed a coup for the presidency in 1848, promising the position of Minister of War to Belzu. Belzu seized power for himself once the coup was completed and cemented his position as president by quashing a counter-coup by Velasco. During his presidency, Belzu instituted several reforms to the country's economy in an effort to redistribute wealth more equitably. He rewarded the work of the poor and dispossessed. Like [[Paraguay]]'s [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia|Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia]], Belzu chose to enact the aforementioned welfare programs because the idea of communalism was more in tune with the traditional values of native populations than the emphasis on private property that other caudillos embraced.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A history of modern Latin America: 1800 to the present|last=Meade|first=Teresa A.|author-link=Teresa Meade |isbn=978-1118772485|edition= Second|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Chichester, West Sussex|oclc=915135785|date = 2016-01-19}}</ref>

Belzu was also known for his nationalization of the country's profitable mining industry – he enacted protectionist policies to reserve Bolivian resources for Bolivian use, provoking the ire of British, Peruvian, and Chilean shipping and mining interests. Many of Belzu's policies won him favor among the long-downtrodden indigenous peoples of Bolivia, but came at the cost of enraging wealthy Creole Bolivians as well as foreign countries like Britain that sought to use resources from Bolivian mines. Belzu took steps to legitimize his leadership, and was at one point democratically elected. Despite his popularity in many sectors, Belzu had many powerful enemies and he survived 40 assassination attempts. His enemies wanted to destroy the state-run projects that helped nationalist program but likewise improved the public sphere on which the country's poor were reliant.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A history of modern Latin America: 1800 to the present|last=Meade|first=Teresa A.|author-link=Teresa Meade |isbn=978-1118772485|edition= Second|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Chichester, West Sussex|oclc=915135785|date = 2016-01-19}}</ref> 

The despotism that is so rife among the caudillos also found a home with Belzu – from the early 1850s until his abdication of power in 1855, he is said to have ruled despotically, making himself very wealthy in the process. Belzu considered returning to the presidency in 1861, but he was gunned down by one of his rivals by the time he tried to run for presidency again. He was unable to leave a legacy and his populist programs died with him. After Bolivia's independence, Bolivia lost half of its territory to neighboring countries including Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Brazil through the war and agreements reached under the threat of invasion.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A history of modern Latin America: 1800 to the present|last=Meade|first=Teresa A.|author-link=Teresa Meade |isbn=978-1118772485|edition= Second|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Chichester, West Sussex|oclc=915135785|date = 2016-01-19}}</ref>

===Southern Cone: Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay===
In contrast to most of Spanish America, post-independence Chile experienced political stability under the authoritarian rule of conservatives, backed by the landowning class. Although he never sought the presidency, cabinet minister [[Diego Portales]] (1793–1837) is credited with creating a strong, centralized regime that lasted 30 years. In general, Chile prospered with an export-oriented economy based on agriculture and mining, an exception to most of the Spanish-American regimes.<ref>[[#Henderson|Henderson]], pp. 125, 522.</ref>

In the former [[Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata]], political instability and violence were more typical of the era. In Argentina, [[Juan Manuel de Rosas]] (r. 1829–1852) dominated the Argentine confederation. He came from a wealthy landowning family, but also acquired large tracts of land in [[Buenos Aires Province]]. Rosas despised "the principles of political democracy and liberty [and] provided order in a region that had known near-anarchy since independence".<ref>[[#Henderson|Henderson]], p. 530.</ref>

During his two-decade reign, Rosas rose to power and created an empire. He used his military experience to gain support from [[gaucho]]s and estancias to create an army that would challenge the leadership of Argentina. After his rise to power using the rural workers, he changed his system in favor of using the military. He attempted to impose a ban on imported goods to help and win the support of the artisans in Argentina, but failed. He was forced to lift the ban on certain imports, like textiles, which opened a trade with Great Britain. Through his power over the imports and exports, the military, the police, and even the legislative branch of government, Rosas created a monopoly that would ensure his remaining in power for over two decades. By the 1850s, Rosas was under attack by the very people who had helped him gain power. He was driven out of power and eventually ended up in Great Britain, where he died in 1877.<ref>Meade, Teresa A. (2016) “Argentina and the Tyrants.” History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present, 2nd ed., Wiley Blackwell. pp. 92–93. {{ISBN|1118772504}}</ref>

Uruguay attained independence from Brazil and Argentina and was ruled by [[Fructuoso Rivera]]. In Paraguay, [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]] (r. 1814–1840) was Supreme Dictator of the Republic, maintaining the landlocked country's independence from Argentina and other foreign powers. Sealed off from outside trade, Paraguay developed economic self-sufficiency under Francia. He based society on communal properties, rather than centralized authoritarianism, attempting to revert to the methods of the communal Indian society that existed previously in Paraguay.<ref name=m93>Meade, Teresa A. (2016) “Populist Caudillismo: Paraguay and Bolivia.” History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present, Wiley Blackwell, p. 93. {{ISBN|1118772504}}</ref> 

After independence, the state gained control of the land which was once under control of the Church and the Spanish state. Francia created state ranches and rented out land for the use of citizens who were able to pay a fee. Francia's repressive measures included crushing the power of the elite American-born Spaniards and curbing the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Francia allowed for religious freedom and abolished the tithe. He actively encouraged miscegenation.<ref>[[#Henderson|Henderson]], pp. 465–66.</ref>

He has been a controversial figure in Hispanic American history: many modern historians credit him with bringing stability to Paraguay, preserving independence, and "bequeathing to his successors an egalitarian, homogeneous nation".{{Cn|date=May 2024}} However, because of his crackdown on the wealthy elite and the subsequent weakening of their power, he was accused of anti-clericalism. Nevertheless, Paraguay prospered under Francia in terms of economics and trade through a trade route with Buenos Aires, which was opposed by the wealthy Argentinian elites.<ref>[[#Henderson|Henderson]], pp. 465–66.</ref> "Sometimes counted among the dictators of the era, contemporary history has viewed Francia as an honest, populist leader who promoted sovereign economic prosperity in a war-torn Paraguay."<ref name=m93/>

===Gallery===
<gallery>
File:Facundo Quiroga por García del Molino.jpg|[[Facundo Quiroga]], Argentina
File:Manuel Isidoro Belzu. Villavicencio, Antonio. c. 1848, Museo de Charcas, Sucre.png|[[Manuel Isidoro Belzu]], Bolivia
File:DPortales.JPG|[[Diego Portales]], Chile
File:Tomas Cipriano de Mosquera.jpg|[[Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera]], Colombia
File:Mora Porras, Juan Rafael -pteCR por Povedano MHJS f2.jpg|[[Juan Rafael Mora Porras]], Costa Rica
File:Tuto Báez - Retrato del General Pedro Santana.jpg|[[Pedro Santana]], Dominican Republic
File:Juan Jose Flores.jpg|[[Juan José Flores]], Ecuador
File:Manuel José Arce 1.jpg|[[Manuel José Arce]], El Salvador
File:Carrerayturcios 2014-06-22 09-46.jpg|[[Rafael Carrera]], Guatemala
File:Morelos 1811.jpg|[[José María Morelos]], Mexico
File:Cleto Ordóñez.png|[[José Anacleto Ordóñez]], Nicaragua
File:Dr. José Gaspar de Francia.jpg|[[Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]], Paraguay
File:Agustin Gamarra.jpg|[[Agustín Gamarra]], Peru
File:Juan Manuel Blanes - Retrato del General Fructuoso Rivera.png|[[Fructuoso Rivera]], Uruguay
File:José Antonio Páez by Tovar y Tovar.jpg|[[José Antonio Páez]], Venezuela
</gallery>