Editing Columbian exchange (section)

=== Of plants ===

{{See also|New World crops|Agriculture in Mesoamerica}}

[[File:The Florentine Codex- Maize.tif|thumb|left|upright|The 16th century [[Florentine Codex]] by the Spanish friar [[Bernardino de Sahagún]] provided an early depiction of [[maize]], one of the plants the Spanish brought to the Old World.]]

Because of the new trading resulting from the Columbian exchange, several plants native to the Americas spread around the world, including [[potato]]es, [[maize]], [[tomato]]es, and [[tobacco]].<ref name="ley196512">{{Cite magazine |last=Ley |first=Willy |date=December 1965 |title=The Healthfull Aromatick Herbe |department=For Your Information |magazine=Galaxy Science Fiction |pages=88–98}}</ref> Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of [[South America]]. By the 18th century, they were cultivated and consumed widely in Europe and had become important crops in both [[India]] and North America. Potatoes eventually became an important staple food in the diets of many Europeans, contributing to an estimated 12 to 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Nunn |first1=Nathan |last2=Qian |first2=Nancy |date=2011 |title=The Potato's Contribution to Population and Urbanization: Evidence from a Historical Experiment |journal=[[Quarterly Journal of Economics]] |volume=126 |issue=2 |pages=593–650 |doi=10.1093/qje/qjr009 |pmid=22073408 |hdl=10.1093/qje/qjr009 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The introduction of the potato to the Old World accounts for 47 percent of the increase in urbanization between 1700 and 1900.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010">{{harvnb|Nunn|Qian|2010}}</ref> [[Cassava]] was introduced from South America by the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] in the 16th century,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm |title=Super-Sized Cassava Plants May Help Fight Hunger In Africa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208143623/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/suprtubr.htm |archive-date=December 8, 2013 |publisher=[[Ohio State University]]}}</ref> and gradually replaced [[sorghum]] and [[millet]] as Africa's most important food crop.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://scitizen.com/biotechnology/maize-streak-virus-resistant-transgenic-maize-an-african-solution-to-an-african-problem_a-28-925.html |title=Maize Streak Virus-Resistant Transgenic Maize: an African solution to an African Problem |website=Scitizen |date=August 7, 2007}}</ref> [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonizers]] of the 16th century introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including [[maize]] and [[sweet potato]]es, contributing to population growth there.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm |title=China's Population: Readings and Maps |publisher=[[Columbia University]], East Asian Curriculum Project |date=24 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090924212813/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1950_population.htm |archive-date=September 24, 2009 }}</ref> On a larger scale, the introduction of potatoes and maize to the Old World improved people's nutrition throughout the Eurasian landmass,<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> enabling more varied and abundant food production.{{sfn|Crosby|2003|p=177}} Cassava and maize can have negative consequences when overused (for example, the nutritional diseases [[pellagra]] and [[konzo]]).<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/>

The discovery of the Americas provided the Old World with new arable landscapes suitable for growing [[sugarcane]] and [[coffee]].<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> Coffee, introduced in the Americas circa 1720 from Africa and the Middle East, and sugarcane, introduced from the [[Indian subcontinent]] to the [[Spanish West Indies]], subsequently became the primary commodity crops and exported goods of extensive [[Latin America]]n plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, [[chili pepper]]s and potatoes from South America in turn became integral parts of [[Indian cuisine]], and starting the process of making [[curry]] an international dish.<ref name="Collingham 2006">{{cite book |last=Collingham |first=Lizzie |author-link=Lizzie Collingham |title=Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors |url=https://archive.org/details/curry00lizz |url-access=registration |year=2006 |chapter=Vindaloo: the Portuguese and the chili pepper |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-988381-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/curry00lizz/page/47 47–73]}}</ref>

Because crops traveled widely but at least initially their endemic fungi did not, for a limited time yields were somewhat higher in the new regions to which they were introduced, a form of [[ecological release]] or "{{visible anchor|yield honeymoon}}". However, the exchange of pathogens has continued alongside globalization, and crops have declined back toward their endemic yields.<ref name="Drenth Guest 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Drenth |first1=André |last2=Guest |first2=David I. |title=Fungal and Oomycete Diseases of Tropical Tree Fruit Crops |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |date=2016-08-04 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-080615-095944 |pages=373–395|pmid=27491435 }}</ref>

[[File:Intikawan Amantani.jpg|thumb|[[Andén|Andenes]] terraces on [[Taquile]] are used to grow traditional [[Andes|Andean]] [[Staple food|staples]] such as [[quinoa]] and [[potato]]es, alongside [[wheat]]—a European introduction.]]

The Spanish were the first Europeans to grow [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]], in 1590. Though cacao was usually consumed by European populations in the form of sweets and was at first treated as an expensive luxury item, [[chocolate]] helped with fatigue and provided energy. As for [[vanilla]], the pods of the plant after chemical treatment acquired an aroma, which was then used both in cooking and in perfumery.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/>

{{vertical align rows}}
{| class="wikitable floatleft vertical-align-top"
|+ Post-Columbian transfers of cultivated plants
|- 
! Old World to New World
! New World to Old World
|-
|
* [[almond]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
* [[apple]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants">{{cite web |last1=Mintz |first1=S. |last2=McNeil |first2=S. |title=Origins of Plants |url=https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/active_learning/explorations/columbus/columbian_answers_plants.cfm |publisher=University of Houston |access-date=15 July 2024 |date=2018}}</ref>
* [[cabbage]] (many varieties)<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[citrus]] ([[Orange (fruit)|orange]], [[lemon]], etc.)<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
* [[coffee]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
* [[lettuce]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[melon]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
* [[oat]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[olive]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
* [[onion]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[peach]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[pear]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[radish]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
* [[rice]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[rye]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[sorghum]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
* [[soybean]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
* [[sugarcane]] and [[sugar beet]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[turnip]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[wheat]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
|
* [[avocado]]<ref name="Crosby 2001">{{harvnb|Crosby|2001}}</ref>
* [[cassava]] (manioc, tapioca)<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[chili pepper]]<ref name="Collingham 2006"/>
* [[cocoa bean]] (cacao)<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> 
* [[cotton]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> (long-staple species)
* [[cranberry]] ([[cranberry#Species and description|bearberry]] species)
* [[guava]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/> (common)
* [[maize]] (corn)<ref>{{cite book |last=Earle |first=Rebecca |author-link=Rebecca Earle |title=The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2012 |pages=17, 144, 151}}</ref>
* [[papaya]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[peanut]]<ref name="Mintz McNeil 2018 plants"/>
* [[pineapple]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[potato]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[cucurbita|squashes]], including [[pumpkin]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[sunflower]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[sweet potato]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[tobacco]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
* [[tomato]]<ref name="Crosby 2001"/>
|}

[[Rice]], originally domesticated in China, became widely planted in the New World; European planters there relied upon the skills of African slaves to cultivate it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carney |first=Judith A. |date=2001 |title=African Rice in the Columbian Exchange |jstor=3647168 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=377–396 |doi=10.1017/s0021853701007940 |pmid=18551802 |s2cid=37074402}}</ref> [[Province of Georgia|Georgia]], [[Province of South Carolina|South Carolina]], [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Cuba]], and [[Puerto Rico]] were major centers of rice production during the [[Colonial history of the United States|colonial era]]. Enslaved Africans brought their knowledge of water control, milling, [[winnowing]], and other agrarian practices to the fields. This widespread knowledge among African slaves eventually made rice a staple food in the New World.<ref name="Harvard University Press"/><ref>{{cite book |first=Seaman Ashahel |last=Knapp |title=Rice culture in the United States |url=https://archive.org/details/CAT87201521 |edition=Public domain |year=1900 |publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture |pages=[https://archive.org/details/CAT87201521/page/n6 6]–}}</ref>

[[Citrus fruit]]s and [[grape]]s were brought to the Americas from the Mediterranean. At first, planters struggled to adapt these crops to New World climates, but by the late 19th century they were cultivated more consistently.<ref>{{cite web |last=McNeill |first=J.R. |title=The Columbian Exchange |url=https://www.ncpedia.org/anchor/columbian-exchange |website=[[NCpedia]] |publisher=[[State Library of North Carolina]] |access-date=23 October 2018}}</ref> [[Banana]]s were introduced into the Americas in the 16th century by Portuguese sailors, who brought them from West Africa. Despite this early introduction, they were little consumed in the Americas as late as the 1880s, when large plantations were established in the Caribbean.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gibson |first1=Arthur |title=Bananas & Plantains |url=http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Musa/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614121141/http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Musa/index.html |archive-date=June 14, 2012 |url-status=dead |publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles]]}}</ref> The [[Manila galleon]] trading network introduced American plants such as [[chayote]] and [[papaya]] into Southeast Asia; these were incorporated into the cuisines there.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amano |first1=Noel |last2=Bankoff |first2=Greg |last3=Findley |first3=David Max |last4=Barretto-Tesoro |first4=Grace |last5=Roberts |first5=Patrick |title=Archaeological and historical insights into the ecological impacts of pre-colonial and colonial introductions into the Philippine Archipelago |journal=The Holocene |date=February 2021 |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=313–330 |doi=10.1177/0959683620941152|bibcode=2021Holoc..31..313A |hdl=21.11116/0000-0006-CB04-1 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Long before the arrival of the Spaniards, cultivators brought wild [[tomato]]es from Central America to South America.<ref name="Nunn Qian 2010"/> Soon after Columbus's visit, tomatoes were brought to Spain, and from there to other European countries, including Italy. In 1544, [[Pietro Andrea Mattioli]], a [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Tuscan]] physician and botanist, wrote that the tomato was eaten fried in oil there.<ref>{{cite journal|last=McCue |first=George Allen |title=The History of the Use of the Tomato: An Annotated Bibliography |journal= Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |year=1952 |volume= 39 |issue=4 |pages=291–292 |doi=10.2307/2399094 |jstor=2399094 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20101657}}</ref> The first Italian cookbook to include tomato sauce, ''Lo Scalco alla Moderna'' ("The Modern Steward"), was written by Italian chef [[Antonio Latini]] and was published in two volumes in 1692 and 1694. In 1790, the use of tomato sauce with pasta appeared for the first time, in the Italian cookbook ''L'Apicio Moderno'' ("The Modern [[Apicius]]"), by chef [[Francesco Leonardi (chef)|Francesco Leonardi]].<ref name=leo>''L'Arte della cucina in Italia'', Emilio Faccioli, Einaudi, Milano, 1987</ref>

Alongside the intentional introductions of cultivated plants that were Crosby's focus,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sauer |first=Jonathan D. |title=[Review:] The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 |journal=Economic Botany |year=1973 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=348–349 |jstor=4253437}}</ref> many wild plants including [[Weed of cultivation|weeds of cultivation]], such as [[dandelion]]s and [[grass]]es,<ref>{{cite web |title=The Columbian Exchange |url=https://americainclass.org/the-columbian-exchange/ |publisher=National Humanities center |access-date=3 December 2024 |date=2015}}</ref> were transferred in both directions, permanently affecting the ecology of many parts of the world.<ref name="Hancock 2023">{{cite journal |last=Hancock |first=James F. |title=Fifty Years Later—The Legacy of Alfred Crosby’s “The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492” |journal=Economic Botany |volume=77 |issue=1 |date=2023 |doi=10.1007/s12231-022-09563-6 |doi-access=free |pages=82–102}}</ref>{{Clear}}