Editing Common kestrel (section)

== Behaviour and ecology ==
In the cool-[[temperate]] parts of its range, the common kestrel [[bird migration|migrates]] south in winter; otherwise it is sedentary, though juveniles may wander around in search for a good place to settle down as they become mature. It is a [[diurnal animal]] of the lowlands and prefers open [[habitat]] such as [[Field (agriculture)|fields]], [[Heath (habitat)|heath]]s, [[shrubland]] and [[marshland]]. It does not require woodland to be present as long as there are alternative perching and nesting sites like rocks or buildings. It will thrive in treeless [[steppe]] where there are abundant [[herbaceous plant]]s and [[shrub]]s to support a population of prey animals. The common kestrel readily adapts to human settlement, as long as sufficient swathes of vegetation are available, and may even be found in [[wetland]]s, [[moorland]]s and [[arid]] [[savanna]]. It is found from the sea to the lower mountain ranges, reaching elevations up to {{convert|4500|m|ft|abbr=on}} [[Above mean sea level|ASL]] in the hottest [[tropical]] parts of its range but only to about {{convert|1750|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the [[subtropical]] climate of the [[Himalayas|Himalayan]] [[foothills]].<ref name=Orta1994/><ref name=Inskipp2000/>

Globally, this species is not considered threatened by the [[IUCN]].<ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021" /> Its stocks were affected by the indiscriminate use of [[organochlorine]]s and other [[pesticide]]s in the mid-20th century, but being something of an [[r-strategist]] able to multiply quickly under good conditions it was less affected than other birds of prey. The global population has been fluctuating considerably over the years but remains generally stable; it is roughly estimated at 1–2 million pairs or so, about 20% of which are found in [[Europe]]. There has been a recent decline in parts of Western Europe such as [[Ireland]]. Subspecies ''dacotiae'' is quite rare, numbering less than 1000 adult birds in 1990, when the ancient western Canarian subspecies ''canariensis'' numbered about ten times as many birds.<ref name=Orta1994/>

=== Food and feeding ===
[[File:Common-Kestrel-4.jpg|thumb]]
[[File:Common-Kestrel-2.jpg|thumb]]
When hunting, the common kestrel characteristically hovers about {{convert|10|-|20|m|ft|round=5|abbr=on}} above the ground, searching for prey, either by flying into the wind or by soaring using [[ridge lift]]. Like most [[birds of prey]], common kestrels have keen eyesight enabling them to spot small prey from a distance. Once prey is sighted, the bird makes a short, steep dive toward the target, unlike the [[peregrine falcon|peregrine]] which relies on longer, higher dives to reach full speed when targeting prey. Kestrels can often be found hunting along the sides of roads and motorways, where the [[road verge]]s support large numbers of prey. This [[species]] is able to see [[near ultraviolet]] light, allowing the birds to detect the [[urine]] trails around [[rodent]] burrows as they shine in an ultraviolet colour in the sunlight.<ref name=Viitala1995/> Another favourite (but less conspicuous) hunting technique is to perch a bit above the ground cover, surveying the area. When the bird spots prey animals moving by, it will pounce on them. They also prowl a patch of hunting ground in a ground-hugging flight, ambushing prey as they happen across it.<ref name=Orta1994/>

[[File:Common-Kestrel-5.jpg|thumb]]
They eat almost exclusively mouse-sized [[mammal]]s. [[Vole]]s, [[shrew]]s and true [[mice]] supply up to three-quarters or more of the [[biomass]] most individuals ingest. On oceanic islands (where [[mammal]]s are often scarce), small [[bird]]s (mainly [[passerine]]s) may make up the bulk of its diet.<ref name=Wiles2004/> Elsewhere, birds are only an important food during a few weeks each summer when inexperienced [[fledgling (birds)|fledgling]]s abound. Other suitably sized [[vertebrate]]s like [[bat]]s, [[Swift (bird)|swift]]s,<ref name=Mikula2013/> [[frog]]s{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} and [[lizard]]s are eaten only on rare occasions. However, kestrels are more likely to prey on lizards in southern latitudes. In northern latitudes, the kestrel is found more often to deliver lizards to their nestlings during midday and also with increasing ambient temperature.<ref name=Steen2011a/> Seasonally, [[arthropod]]s may be a main prey item. Generally, [[invertebrate]]s like [[camel spider]]s and even [[earthworm]]s, but mainly sizeable [[insect]]s such as [[beetle]]s, [[orthoptera]]ns and winged [[termite]]s will be eaten.<ref name=Orta1994/>

The common kestrel requires the equivalent of 4–8 voles a day, depending on energy expenditure (time of the year, amount of hovering, etc.). They have been known to catch several voles in succession and [[hoarding (animal behavior)|cache]] some for later consumption. An individual nestling consumes on average 4.2&nbsp;g/h, equivalent to 67.8&nbsp;g/d (3–4 voles per day).<ref name=Steen2011b/>

=== Breeding ===
[[File:Faucon crécerelle MHNT.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Egg]]
[[File:Turmfalken IMG 2659.jpg|thumb|Young kestrels, not yet able to fly, waiting for food]]
The common kestrel starts breeding in spring (or the start of the [[dry season]] in the [[tropics]]), i.e. April or May in [[temperate]] [[Eurasia]] and some time between August and December in the tropics and southern [[Africa]]. It is a cavity nester, preferring holes in cliffs, trees or buildings; in built-up areas, common kestrels will often nest on buildings, and will reuse the old nests of [[corvid]]s. The diminutive [[subspecies]] ''dacotiae'', the ''sarnicolo'' of the eastern [[Canary Islands]] is peculiar for nesting occasionally in the dried fronds below the top of [[palm tree]]s, apparently coexisting with small [[songbird]]s which also make their home there.<ref name=AlamoTavio1975/> In general, common kestrels will usually tolerate conspecifics nesting nearby, and sometimes a few dozen pairs may be found nesting in a loose colony.<ref name=Orta1994/>

The [[clutch (eggs)|clutch]] is normally 3–7 eggs; more eggs may be laid in total but some will be removed during the laying time. This lasts about 2 days per egg laid. The eggs are abundantly patterned with brown spots, from a wash that tinges the entire surface [[buff (colour)|buff]]ish white to large almost-black blotches. Incubation lasts from 4 weeks to one month, both male and female will take shifts incubating the eggs. After the eggs have hatched, the parents share brooding and hunting duties. Only the female feeds the chicks, by tearing apart prey into manageable chunks. The young fledge after 4–5 weeks. The family stays close together for a few weeks, during which time the young learn how to fend for themselves and hunt prey. The young become sexually mature the next breeding season.<ref name=Orta1994/> Female kestrel chicks with blacker plumage have been found to have bolder personalities, indicating that even in juvenile birds plumage coloration can act as a status signal.<ref>{{cite journal | author1= López-Idiáquez, D. | author2= Fargallo, J.A. | author3= López-Rull , I. | author4= Martínez-Padilla, J. | year=2019 | title=  Plumage coloration and personality in early life: sexual differences in signalling | journal=Ibis| volume=161| pages = 216–221| doi= 10.1111/ibi.12665| issue=1| s2cid= 91263096 | doi-access= free }}</ref>

Data from [[Great Britain|Britain]] shows nesting pairs bringing up about 2–3 chicks on average, though this includes a considerable rate of total brood failures; actually, few pairs that do manage to fledge offspring raise less than 3 or 4. Compared to their siblings, first-hatched chicks have greater survival and recruitment probability, thought to be due to the first-hatched chicks obtaining a higher body condition when in the nest.<ref>{{cite journal |author1= Martínez-Padilla, J. |author2= Vergara, P. | author3= Fargallo, J. A. | year=2017| title = Increased lifetime reproductive success of first-hatched siblings in Common Kestrels ''Falco tinnunculus''. | journal=Ibis| volume=159| pages=803–811| doi=10.1111/ibi.12494| issue=4}}</ref> [[Population cycle]]s of prey, particularly voles, have a considerable influence on breeding success. Most common kestrels die before they reach 2 years of age; mortality up until the first birthday may be as high as 70%. At least females generally breed at one year of age;<ref name=anage2010/> possibly, some males take a year longer to maturity as they do in related species. The biological lifespan to death from [[senescence]] can be 16 years or more, however; one was recorded to have lived almost 24 years.<ref name=anage2010/>

<gallery>
File:Falcon3.jpg|Hatchling of common kestrel (note white [[down (feather)|down]])
File:Falken(loz).jpg|Fledglings in nest cavity
File:Turmfalke P1020197.jpg|Immature after fledging
File:Pst7.jpg|Common kestrel nest
</gallery>