Editing Communist state (section)

== State ==
According to [[Marxist–Leninist]] thought, the state is a repressive institution led by a [[ruling class]].{{sfn|Guins|1950|p=187}} This class dominates the state and expresses its will through it.{{sfn|Guins|1950|p=187}} By formulating law, the ruling class uses the state to oppress other classes and form a class dictatorship.{{sfn|Guins|1950|p=187}} However, the goal of the communist state is to abolish that state.{{sfn|Guins|1950|p=187}} The [[Soviet Russia Constitution of 1918]] stated: "The principal object of the Constitution of the R.S.F.S.R., which is adapted to the present transition period, consists in the establishment of a dictatorship of the urban and rural proletariat and the poorest peasantry, in the form of a powerful All-Russian Soviet power; the object of which is to secure complete suppression of the bourgeoisie, the abolition of exploitation of man by man, and the establishment of Socialism, under which there shall be neither [[class division]] nor state authority".{{sfn|Guins|1950|p=187}} The communist state is the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], where the advanced elements of the [[proletariat]] are the ruling class.{{sfn|Guins|1950|pp=187–188}} In Marxist–Leninist thinking, the socialist state is the last repressive state since the next stage of development is that of [[pure communism]], a classless and stateless society.{{sfn|Guins|1950|pp=187–188}} [[Friedrich Engels]] commented on the state, writing: "State interference in social relations, becomes, in one domain after another, superfluous, and then dies out of itself; the government of persons is replaced by the administration of things, and by the conduct of processes of production. The state is not 'abolished'. It dies out."{{sfn|Imam|1986|p=383}}

In "The Tax in Kind", [[Vladimir Lenin]] argued: "No one, I think, in studying the question of the economic system of Russia, has denied its transitional character. Nor, I think, has any Communist denied that the term Soviet Socialist Republic implies the determination of the Soviet power to achieve the transition to socialism, and not that the existing economic system is recognised as a socialist order."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lenin |first=Vladimir |author-link=Vladimir Lenin |date=21 April 1921 |url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1921/apr/21.htm |title=The Tax in Kind |via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]] |access-date=15 June 2020 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> The introduction of the [[First five-year plan (Soviet Union)|first five-year plan]] in the Soviet Union got many communists to believe that the withering away of the state was imminent.{{sfn|Guins|1950|p=188}} However, [[Joseph Stalin]] warned that the [[withering away of the state]] would not occur until after the [[socialism (Marxism)|socialist mode of production]] had achieved dominance over capitalism.{{sfn|Guins|1950|p=188}} Soviet jurist [[Andrey Vyshinsky]] echoed this assumption and said that the socialist state was necessary "in order to defend, to secure, and to develop relationships and arrangements advantageous to the workers, and to annihilate completely capitalism and its remnants."{{sfn|Guins|1950|pp=188–189}}

Ideology permeates these states.{{sfn|Tang|1980|p=43}} According to scholar Peter Tang, "[t]he supreme test of whether a Communist Party-state remains revolutionarily dedicated or degenerates into a revisionist or counterrevolutionary system lies in its attitude toward the Communist ideology."{{sfn|Tang|1980|p=41}} Therefore, the sole ideological purpose of communist states is to spread socialism and to reach that goal these states have to be guided by Marxism–Leninism.{{sfn|Tang|1980|p=41}} The communist states have opted for two ways to achieve this goal, namely govern indirectly by Marxism–Leninism through the party (Soviet model), or commit the state officially through the constitution to Marxism–Leninism (Maoist China–Albania model).{{sfn|Tang|1980|pp=42–43}} The Soviet model is the most common and is currently in use in China.{{sfn|Tang|1980|p=42}}

Marxism–Leninism was mentioned in the [[Soviet constitution]].{{sfn|Tang|1980|p=43}} Article 6 of the [[1977 Soviet constitution]] stated: "The Communist Party, armed with Marxism–Leninism, determines the general perspective of the development of society and the course of the domestic and foreign policy of the USSR."{{sfn|Tang|1980|p=43}} This contrasts with the 1976 Albanian constitution which stated in Article 3: "In the People's Socialist Republic of Albania the dominant ideology is Marxism–Leninism. The entire social order is developing on the basis of its principles."{{sfn|Tang|1980|p=42}} The [[1975 Constitution of the People's Republic of China|1975 Chinese constitution]] had a similar tone, stating in Article 2 that "Marxism–Leninism–Mao Zedong Thought is the theoretical basis guiding the thinking of our nation."{{sfn|Tang|1980|p=42}} The 1977 Soviet constitution did also use phrases such as "building socialism and communism", "on the road to communism", "to build the material and technical basis of communism" and "to perfect socialist social relations and transform them into communist relations" in the preamble.{{sfn|Tang|1980|p=43}}

=== People's democratic state ===
The [[People's democracy (Marxism–Leninism)|people's democratic state]] was implemented in Eastern Europe after World War II.{{sfn|Skilling|1961|p=16}} It can be defined as a state and society in which feudal vestiges have been liquidated and where the system of private ownership exists, but the state-owned enterprises in the field of industry, transport, and credit eclipse it.{{sfn|Skilling|1961|p=21}}

In the words of [[Eugene Varga]], "the state itself and its apparatus of violence serve the interests, not of the monopolistic bourgeoisie, but of the toilers of town and country."{{sfn|Skilling|1961|p=21}} Soviet philosopher N. P. Farberov stated: "People's democracy in the people's republics is a democracy of the toiling classes, headed by the working class, a broad and full democracy for the overwhelming majority of the people, that is, a socialist democracy in its character and its trend. In this sense, we call it popular."{{sfn|Skilling|1961|p=21}}

=== People's republican state ===
The [[People's republic|people's republican state]] is a socialist state with a republican constitution. Although the term initially became associated with [[populist]] movements in the 19th century, such as the German [[Völkisch movement]] and the [[Narodniks]] in Russia, it is now associated with communist states. A number of the short-lived communist states which formed during [[World War I]] and [[Aftermath of World War I|its aftermath]] called themselves people's republics. Many of these sprang up in the territory of the former [[Russian Empire]] following the [[October Revolution]].<ref>{{bulleted list|
| {{harvnb|Åslund|2009|p=12}}
| {{harvnb|Minahan|2013|p=296}}
| {{harvnb|Tunçer-Kılavuz|2014|p=53}}
| {{harvnb|Khabtagaeva|2009|p=21}}
| {{harvnb|Macdonald|Stacey|Steele|2004|p=413}}
}}</ref>

Additional people's republics emerged following the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] victory in World War II, mainly within the Soviet Union's [[Eastern Bloc]].<ref>{{bulleted list|
| {{harvnb|Gjevori|2018|p=21}}
| {{harvnb|Stankova|2014|p=148}}
| {{harvnb|Müller-Rommel|Mansfeldová|2001|p=62}}
| {{harvnb|Hajdú|2011|p=27}}
| {{harvnb|Frankowski|Stephan|1995|p=23}}
| {{harvnb|Paquette|2001|p=55}}
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Yugoslavia as History: Twice There Was a Country |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AZ1x7gvwx_8C |first=John R. |last=Lampe |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=9780521774017 |page=233 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> In Asia, [[China]] became a people's republic following the [[Chinese Communist Revolution]]<ref>{{cite web |title=The Chinese Revolution of 1949|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/chinese-rev |website=Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs |publisher=[[United States Department of State]]}}</ref> and [[North Korea]] also became a people's republic.<ref>{{cite book |title=North Korea: The Politics of Regime Survival |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-EHfBQAAQBAJ |first1=Young Whan |last1=Kihl |first2=Hong Nack |last2=Kim |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2014 |isbn=9781317463764 |page=8 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

During the 1960s, [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]] and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] ceased to use the term ''people's republic'' in their official name, replacing it with the term ''[[Socialist state|socialist republic]]'' as a mark of their ongoing political development. [[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic|Czechoslovakia]] also added the term ''socialist republic'' into its name during this period; it had become a people's republic in 1948, but the country had not used that term in its official name.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Routledge Companion to Central and Eastern Europe Since 1919 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vut9AgAAQBAJ |first=Adrian |last=Webb |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2008 |series=Routledge Companions to History |isbn=9781134065219 |pages=80, 88 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]] used both terms in its official name from 1976 to 1991.<ref>{{cite book |title=Heads of State and Government |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0YfDgAAQBAJ |edition=2nd |first=John V. |last=Da Graça |year=2000 |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |isbn=978-1-56159-269-2 |page=56 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

=== National-democratic state ===
The concept of the national-democratic state tried to theorise how a state could develop socialism by bypassing the [[capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)|capitalist mode of production]].{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=13}} While Vladimir Lenin first articulated the theory of non-capitalist development, the novelty of this concept was applying it to the progressive elements of the [[national liberation movements]] in the [[Third World]].{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=13}} The term ''national-democratic state'' was introduced shortly after the [[Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin|death of Stalin]], who believed colonies to be mere lackeys of Western imperialism and that the socialist movement had few prospects there.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=13}}

The countries where the national liberation movements took power and instituted an [[anti-imperialist]] foreign policy and sought to construct a form of socialism were considered national-democratic states by Marxist–Leninists.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=13}} An example of a national-democratic state is Egypt under [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] which was committed to constructing [[Arab socialism]].{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=14}} Except Cuba, none of these states developed socialism.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=14}} According to scholar Sylvia Woodby Edington, this might explain why the concept of the national-democratic state "never received full theoretical elaboration as a political system."{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=14}} However, one feature was clearly defined, namely, that these states did not need to be led by a Marxist–Leninist party.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=16}}

=== Socialist-oriented state ===
A [[socialist-oriented state]] seeks to reach socialism by non-capitalist development.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=15}} As a term, it substantially differs from the concept of the national-democratic state.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=15}} The singular difference is that the socialist-oriented state was divided into two stages: a national-democratic socialist-oriented state and a people's democratic socialist-oriented state.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=16}} Countries belonging to the national-democratic socialist-oriented state category were also categorised as national-democratic states.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=16}} Examples of national-democratic socialist-oriented states are [[Algeria]], ruled by the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]], [[Ba'athist Iraq]], and [[Socialist Burma]].{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=16}} In contrast, people's democratic socialist-oriented states had to be guided by Marxism–Leninism and accept the universal truths of Marxism–Leninism and reject other notions of socialism such as [[African socialism]].{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=16}}

The socialist-oriented states had seven defining features, namely, they were revolutionary democracies, had a revolutionary-democratic party, class dictatorship, defense of the socialist-oriented states, had organs of socialisation, initiated socialist construction, and the type of socialist-oriented state (either national-democratic or people's democratic).{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=22}} The political goal of [[revolutionary democracy]] is to create the conditions for socialism in countries where the social, political, and economic conditions for socialism do not exist.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=23}} The second feature to be met is the establishment of a revolutionary-democratic party which has to establish itself as the leading force and guide the state by using Marxist–Leninist ideology.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=24}} While introduced in these states, [[democratic centralism]] is rarely upheld.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=25}}

Unlike capitalism which is ruled by the bourgeoisie class, and socialism, where the proletariat leads, the socialist-oriented state represents a broad and heterogeneous group of classes that seek to consolidate national independence.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=25}} Since peasants were usually the largest class in socialist-oriented states, their role was emphasised—similar to the working class in other socialist states.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=26}} However, Marxist–Leninists admitted that these states often fell under the control of certain cliques such as the [[Derg|military in Ethiopia]].{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=26}} The establishment of a legal system and coercive institutions are also noted to safeguard the socialist-oriented nature of the state.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=44}} The fifth feature is that the socialist-oriented state must take over the media and educational system while establishing mass organisations to mobilise the populace.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|pp=50–52}} Unlike the Soviet economic model, the economy of the socialist-oriented states are [[mixed economies]] that seek to attract [[foreign capital]] and which seeks to maintain and develop the [[private sector]].{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|pp=54–55}} In the words of Soviet leader [[Leonid Brezhnev]], these states were in the process of taking over the [[commanding heights of the economy]] and instituting a state-planned economy.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=14}} According to Soviet sources, Laos was the one socialist-oriented state that has managed to develop into a socialist state.{{sfn|Poelzer|1989|p=61}}

=== Socialist state ===
A [[socialist state (communism)|socialist state]] is more than a form of government and can only exist in countries with a [[socialist economy]]. There are examples of several states that have instituted a socialist [[form of government]] before achieving socialism. The former socialist states of Eastern Europe were established as people's democracies (a developmental stage between [[capitalism]] and [[socialism]]). Regarding the Marxist–Leninist-ruled countries of Africa and the Middle East, the Soviet Union deemed none of them socialist states—referring to them as socialist-oriented states. While many countries with constitutional references to socialism and countries ruled by long-standing socialist movements exist, within Marxist–Leninist theory a socialist state is led by a [[communist party]] that has instituted a socialist economy in a given country.{{sfn|Harding|1981|p=27}} It deals with states that define themselves either as a socialist state or as a state led by a governing Marxist–Leninist party in their constitutions. For this reason alone, these states are often called communist states.{{r|Wilczynski2008_021}}{{sfn|Steele|1999|p=45|ps=: "Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all."}}{{sfn|Rosser|Rosser|2003|loc=p. 14|ps=: "Ironically, the ideological father of communism, Karl Marx, claimed that communism entailed the withering away of the state. The dictatorship of the proletariat was to be a strictly temporary phenomenon. Well aware of this, the Soviet Communists never claimed to have achieved communism, always labelling their own system socialist rather than communist and viewing their system as in transition to communism"}}