Editing Conservation movement (section)

===Conservation in the United States===
[[File:Yellowstone 1871b.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden|F. V. Hayden]]'s map of [[Yellowstone National Park]], 1871]]
{{Main|Conservation in the United States}}
The American movement received its inspiration from 19th century works that exalted the inherent value of nature, quite apart from human usage. Author [[Henry David Thoreau]] (1817–1862) made key philosophical contributions that exalted nature. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book ''[[Walden]],'' which argued that people should become intimately close with nature.<ref>{{Citation|author=Thoreau, Henry David|title=Walden|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1189910652|oclc=1189910652|access-date=2022-02-26}}</ref> The ideas of [[Dietrich Brandis|Sir Brandis]], [[Sir William P.D. Schlich]] and [[Carl A. Schenck]] were also very influential—[[Gifford Pinchot]], the first chief of the [[USDA Forest Service]], relied heavily upon Brandis' advice for introducing professional forest management in the U.S. and on how to structure the Forest Service.<ref>[http://www.asiaticsociety.org.bd/journals/Golden_jubilee_vol/articles/H_468%20(Brett%20M%20Benet).htm America has been the context for both the origins of conservation history and its modern form, environmental history] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313144333/http://www.asiaticsociety.org.bd/journals/Golden_jubilee_vol/articles/H_468%20%28Brett%20M%20Benet%29.htm |date=2012-03-13 }}. Asiaticsociety.org.bd. Retrieved on 2011-09-01.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Rawat |first=Ajay Singh |title=Indian Forestry: A Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5IZYFP15OscC&pg=PA85|year=1993|publisher=Indus Publishing|pages=85–88|isbn=9788185182780 }}</ref> In 1864 [[Abraham Lincoln]] established the [[Yosemite National Park|federally preserved Yosemite]], before the first [[national park]] was created ([[Yellowstone National Park]]).

Both conservationists and preservationists appeared in political debates during the [[Progressive Era]] (the 1890s–early 1920s). There were three main positions.

* '''Laissez-faire:''' The laissez-faire position held that owners of private property, including lumber and mining companies, should be allowed to do anything they wished on their properties. Environmental protection therefore becomes their choice.<ref>Samuel P. Hays, ''Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920'' (1959)</ref> Businesses are pressured somewhat by the incentive of occupational preservation which requires that they not wholly destroy or consume the resources they rely upon. Said businesses need to innovate or pivot in the event that the exhaustion of a resource is imminent.
* '''Conservationists:''' The conservationists, led by future President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and his close ally [[George Bird Grinnell]], were motivated by the wanton waste that was taking place at the hand of market forces, including logging and hunting.<ref>Benjamin Redekop, "Embodying the Story: The Conservation Leadership of Theodore Roosevelt" in ''Leadership'' (2015). DOI: 10.1177/1742715014546875.  [http://cnu.edu/leadershipstudies/faculty/pdf/redekop-embodying_the_story_theodore_roosevelts_conservation_leadership.pdf online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114045519/http://cnu.edu/leadershipstudies/faculty/pdf/redekop-embodying_the_story_theodore_roosevelts_conservation_leadership.pdf |date=2016-01-14 }}</ref> This practice resulted in placing a large number of North American game species on the edge of extinction. Roosevelt believed that the laissez-faire approach of the U.S. Government was too wasteful and inefficient. In any case, they noted, most of the natural resources in the western states were already owned by the federal government. The best course of action, they argued, was a long-term plan devised by national experts to maximize the long-term economic benefits of natural resources. To accomplish the mission, Roosevelt and Grinnell formed the [[Boone and Crockett Club]], whose members were some of the best minds and influential men of the day. Its contingency of conservationists, scientists, politicians, and intellectuals became Roosevelt's closest advisers during his march to preserve wildlife and habitat across North America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Archives of the Boone and Crockett Club|url=http://cdm16013.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p16013coll13/id/1220/rec/1|access-date=2014-04-06|archive-date=2014-04-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407144539/http://cdm16013.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p16013coll13/id/1220/rec/1|url-status=dead}}</ref> 
* '''Preservationists:''' Preservationists, led by [[John Muir]] (1838–1914), argued that the conservation policies were not strong enough to protect the interest of the natural world because they continued to focus on the natural world as a source of economic production.

The debate between conservation and preservation reached its peak in the public debates over the construction of California's [[O'Shaughnessy Dam (California)|Hetch Hetchy dam]] in [[Yosemite National Park]] which supplies the water supply of San Francisco. Muir, leading the [[Sierra Club]], declared that the valley must be preserved for the sake of its beauty: "No holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man."

President [[Theodore Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] put conservationist issues high on the national agenda.<ref>Douglas G. Brinkley, ''The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America'' (2009)</ref> He worked with all the major figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter, [[Gifford Pinchot]] and was deeply committed to conserving natural resources. He encouraged the [[Newlands Reclamation Act]] of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed {{convert|230|e6acre|mi2 km2}} under federal protection. Roosevelt set aside more federal land for [[national park]]s and [[nature preserve]]s than all of his predecessors combined.<ref>W. Todd Benson, ''President Theodore Roosevelt's Conservations Legacy'' (2003)</ref>
[[File:TR-Enviro.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Roosevelt was a leader in conservation, fighting to end the waste of natural resources.]]

Roosevelt established the [[United States Forest Service]], signed into law the creation of five national parks, and signed the year 1906 [[Antiquities Act]], under which he proclaimed 18 new [[National monument (United States)|national monuments]]. He also established the first 51 [[bird reserve]]s, four [[game preserve]]s, and 150 [[United States National Forest|national forests]], including [[Shoshone National Forest]], the nation's first. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately {{convert|230000000|acre|km2}}.

[[Gifford Pinchot]] had been appointed by McKinley as chief of Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture. In 1905, his department gained control of the national forest reserves. Pinchot promoted private use (for a fee) under federal supervision. In 1907, Roosevelt designated {{convert|16|e6acre|km2}} of new national forests just minutes before a deadline.<ref>Char Miller, ''Seeking the Greatest Good: The Conservation Legacy of Gifford Pinchot'' (2013)</ref>

In May 1908, Roosevelt sponsored the [[Conference of Governors]] held in the White House, with a focus on natural resources and their most efficient use. Roosevelt delivered the opening address: "Conservation as a National Duty".

In 1903 Roosevelt toured the Yosemite Valley with [[John Muir]], who had a very different view of conservation, and tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests. Working through the Sierra Club he founded, Muir succeeded in 1905 in having Congress transfer the [[Mariposa Grove]] and Yosemite Valley to the federal government.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Statutes at Large, Vol. 26, Chap. 1263, pp. 650-52. "An act to set apart certain tracts of land in the State of California as forest reservations." [H.R. 12187]|url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=amrvl&fileName=vl044//amrvlvl044.db&recNum=1&itemLink=r?ammem/consrvbib:@FIELD%28NUMBER%28vl044+v1512%29%29&linkText=0|work=Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850-1920|publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref> While Muir wanted nature preserved for its own sake, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, "to make the forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of men and trees."<ref>Gifford Pinchot, ''Breaking New Ground,'' (1947) p. 32.</ref>

Theodore Roosevelt's view on conservationism remained dominant for decades; [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] authorised the building of many large-scale dams and water projects, as well as the expansion of the National Forest System to buy out sub-marginal farms. In 1937, the [[Pittman–Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act]] was signed into law, providing funding for state agencies to carry out their conservation efforts.
[[File:Theodore Roosevelt with dead lion.jpg|thumb|Theodore Roosevelt with trophy killing]]

====Since 1970====
Environmental reemerged on the national agenda in 1970, with Republican [[Richard Nixon]] playing a major role, especially with his creation of the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]]. The debates over the public lands and environmental politics played a supporting role in the decline of liberalism and the rise of modern environmentalism. Although Americans consistently rank environmental issues as "important", polling data indicates that in the voting booth voters rank the environmental issues low relative to other political concerns.

The growth of the Republican party's political power in the inland West (apart from the Pacific coast) was facilitated by the rise of popular opposition to public lands reform. Successful Democrats in the inland West and Alaska typically take more conservative positions on environmental issues than Democrats from the Coastal states. Conservatives drew on new organizational networks of think tanks, industry groups, and citizen-oriented organizations, and they began to deploy new strategies that affirmed the rights of individuals to their property, protection of extraction rights, to hunt and recreate, and to pursue happiness unencumbered by the federal government at the expense of resource conservation.<ref>* Turner, James Morton, "The Specter of Environmentalism": Wilderness, Environmental Politics, and the Evolution of the New Right. ''The Journal of American History'' 96.1 (2009): 123-47 [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/96.1/turner.html online at History Cooperative] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090703095241/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/96.1/turner.html |date=2009-07-03 }}</ref>

In 2019, convivial conservation was an idea proposed by Bram Büscher and Robert Fletcher. Convivial conservation draws on social movements and concepts like [[environmental justice]] and structural change to create a post-capitalist approach to conservation.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt183pdh2|title=Nature Inc.|date=2014-05-29|publisher=University of Arizona Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt183pdh2|isbn=978-0-8165-9885-4|editor-last=Büscher|editor-first=Bram|editor-last2=Dressler|editor-first2=Wolfram|editor-last3=Fletcher|editor-first3=Robert}}</ref> Convivial conservation rejects both human-nature dichotomies and capitalistic political economies. Built on a politics of equity, structural change and  environmental  justice, convivial conservation is considered a radical theory as it focuses on the structural political-economy of modern nation states and the need to create structural change.<ref name=":4">Büscher, B. and Fletcher, R., 2019. Towards convivial conservation. ''Conservation & Society'', ''17''(3), pp.283-296. </ref> Convivial conservation creates a more integrated approach which reconfigures the nature-human configuration to create a world in which humans are recognized as a part of nature. The emphasis on nature as for and by humans creates a human responsibility to care for the environment as a way of caring for themselves. It also redefines nature as not only being pristine and untouched, but cultivated by humans in everyday formats. The theory is a long-term process of structural change to move away from capitalist valuation in favor of a system emphasizing everyday and local living.<ref name=":4" /> Convivial conservation creates a nature which includes humans rather than excluding them from the necessity of conservation. While other conservation theories integrate some of the elements of convivial conservation, none move away from both dichotomies and capitalist valuation principles.

===== The five elements of convivial conservation =====
Source:<ref name=":4" />

# The promotion of nature for, to and by humans
# The movement away from the concept of conservation as saving only nonhuman nature
# Emphasis on the long-term democratic engagement with nature rather than elite access and tourism,
# The movement away from the spectacle of nature and instead focusing on the mundane ‘everyday nature’
# The democratic management of nature, with nature as commons and in context