Editing Consonant mutation (section)

=== Celtic languages ===
{{Further|Breton mutations|Cornish grammar#Initial consonant mutation|Irish initial mutations|Manx language#Initial consonant mutations|Scottish Gaelic phonology#Lenition and spelling}}
The [[Insular Celtic languages]] are well-known for their initial consonant mutations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ball|first=M. J.|author2=N. Müller|title=Mutation in Welsh|location=London|publisher=Routledge|year=1992|isbn=0-415-03165-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Fife|first=James|author2=Gareth King|chapter=Celtic (Indo-European)|title=The Handbook of Morphology|editor=Andrew Spencer |editor2=Arnold M. Zwicky |pages=477–99|location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell|year=1998|isbn=0-631-22694-X}}</ref> The individual languages vary on the number of mutations available: [[Scottish Gaelic]] has one, [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Manx language|Manx]] have two, [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[Breton language|Breton]] have four (if mixed mutations are counted). Cornish and Breton have so-called mixed mutations; a trigger causes one mutation to some sounds and another to other sounds. Welsh also has a mixed mutation (triggered by ''na'', ''ni'' and ''oni''). The languages vary on the environments for the mutations, but some generalizations can be made. Those languages all have feminine singular nouns  mutated after the definite article, with adjectives mutated after feminine singular nouns. In most of the languages, the [[possessive determiner]]s trigger various mutations. Here are some examples from Breton, Cornish, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh:

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto;"
! Breton !! Cornish !! Welsh !! Irish !! Scottish Gaelic !! Gloss
|-
| gwreg || gwreg || gwraig || bean || bean || ''woman''/''wife''
|-
| bras <!--compare with mor in old breton --> || bras|| mawr || mór || mòr || ''big''
|-
| ar '''w'''reg '''v'''ras || an '''w'''reg '''v'''ras || yr '''w'''raig '''f'''awr || an '''bh'''ean '''mh'''ór || a' '''bh'''ean '''mh'''òr || ''the big woman''
|-
| kazh || kath || cath || cat || cat || ''cat''
|-
| e '''g'''azh || y '''g'''ath || ei '''g'''ath || a '''ch'''at || a '''ch'''at ||''his cat''
|-
| he '''c'h'''azh || hy '''h'''ath || ei '''ch'''ath || a '''c'''at || a '''c'''at || ''her cat''
|-
| o '''c'h'''azh || aga '''h'''ath || eu '''c'''ath || a '''gc'''at || an '''c'''at || ''their cat''
|}

Older textbooks on Gaelic sometimes refer to the ''c → ch'' mutation as "aspiration", but it is not [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]] in the sense of the word used by modern phoneticians, and linguists prefer to speak of [[lenition]] here.

Historically, the Celtic initial mutations originated from [[progressive assimilation]] and [[sandhi]] phenomena between adjacent words. For example, the mutating effect of the conjunction ''a'' 'and' is from the word once having the form *ak, and the final consonant influenced the following sounds.<ref>Ternes, Elmar. 1986. A Grammatical hierarchy of joining. In: Andersen, Henning. Sandhi phenomena in the languages of Europe. P.17-18</ref>

==== Welsh ==== 
{{further|Literary Welsh morphology#Initial consonant mutation|Colloquial Welsh morphology#Initial consonant mutation}}
[[Welsh language|Welsh]] has three main classes of initial consonant mutation: ''soft mutation'' ({{langx|cy|treiglad meddal}}); ''nasal mutation'' ({{langx|cy|treiglad trwynol}}); and ''aspirate mutation'', which is sometimes called ''spirant mutation'' ({{langx|cy|treiglad llaes}}). The fourth category is ''mixed mutation'', which calls for an ''aspirate mutation'' if possible but otherwise a ''soft mutation''. The following tables show the range of Welsh mutations with examples. A blank cell indicates that no change occurs.

{|
|width=300|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mutation scheme
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Radical
! Soft
! Nasal
! Aspirate
|-
| p
| b
| mh {{IPA|/m̥/}}
| ph {{IPA|/f/}}
|-
| t
| d
| nh {{IPA|/n̥/}}
| th {{IPA|/θ/}}
|-
| c {{IPA|/k/}}
| g
| ngh {{IPA|/ŋ̊/}}
| ch {{IPA|/χ/}}
|-
| b
| f {{IPA|/v/}}
| m
| 
|-
| d
| dd {{IPA|/ð/}}
| n
| 
|-
| g
| {{IPA|∅}}*
| ng {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
|
|-
| m
| f {{IPA|/v/}}
| 
| 
|-
| ll {{IPA|/ɬ/}}
| l
|
|
|-
| rh {{IPA|/r̥/}}
| r
|
|
|-
| ts {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}
| j {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}
|
|
|}
|width=50|

|rowspan=2 valign=top|
{| class="wikitable"
|+Examples
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Radical
! Soft
! Nasal
! Aspirate
! English
|-
| '''p'''lant {{IPA|/plant/}}
| '''b'''lant {{IPA|/blant/}}
| '''mh'''lant {{IPA|/m̥lant/}}
| '''ph'''lant {{IPA|/flant/}}
| ''children''
|-
| '''t'''ref {{IPA|/treː(v)/}}<br />'''t'''ŷ {{IPA|/tiː/}}
| '''d'''ref {{IPA|/dreː(v)/}}<br />'''d'''ŷ {{IPA|/diː/}}
| '''nh'''ref {{IPA|/n̥reː(v)/}}<br />'''nh'''ŷ {{IPA|/n̥iː/}}
| '''th'''ref {{IPA|/θreː(v)/}}<br />'''th'''ŷ {{IPA|/θiː/}}
| ''town''<br />''house''
|-
| '''c'''oeden {{IPA|/kɔi̯dɛn/}}
| '''g'''oeden {{IPA|/ɡɔi̯dɛn/}}
| '''ngh'''oeden {{IPA|/ŋ̊ɔi̯dɛn/}}
| '''ch'''oeden {{IPA|/χɔi̯dɛn/}}
| ''tree''
|-
| '''b'''rawd {{IPA|/braʊ̯d/}}
| '''f'''rawd {{IPA|/vraʊ̯d/}}
| '''m'''rawd {{IPA|/mraʊ̯d/}}
| 
| ''brother''
|-
| '''d'''ŵr {{IPA|/duːr/}}
| '''dd'''ŵr {{IPA|/ðuːr/}}
| '''n'''ŵr {{IPA|/nuːr/}}
| 
| ''water''
|-
| '''g'''waith {{IPA|/ɡwai̯θ/}}<br />'''g'''las {{IPA|/ɡlas/}}<br />'''g'''orsaf {{IPA|/ɡɔrsa(v)/}}
| '''w'''aith {{IPA|/wai̯θ/}}<br />'''l'''as {{IPA|/las/}}<br />'''o'''rsaf {{IPA|/ɔrsa(v)/}}
| '''ng'''waith {{IPA|/ŋwai̯θ/}}<br />'''ng'''las {{IPA|/ŋlas/}}<br />'''ng'''orsaf {{IPA|/ŋɔrsa(v)/}}
|
| ''work''<br />''blue''<br />''station''
|-
| '''m'''awr {{IPA|/maʊ̯r/}}
| '''f'''awr {{IPA|/vaʊ̯r/}}
| 
| 
| ''big, large''
|-
| '''ll'''an {{IPA|/ɬan/}}
| '''l'''an {{IPA|/lan/}}
|
|
| ''parish''
|-
| '''rh'''ywbeth {{IPA|/r̥ɪʊ̯bɛθ/}}
| '''r'''ywbeth {{IPA|/rɪʊ̯bɛθ/}}
|
|
| ''something''
|-
| '''ts'''ips {{IPA|/t͡ʃɪps/}}
| '''j'''ips {{IPA|/d͡ʒɪps/}}
|
|
| ''chips''
|}
|-
|{{asterisk}}Soft mutation causes initial {{IPA|/ɡ/}} to be deleted. For example, {{lang|cy|gardd}} "garden" becomes {{lang|cy|yr ardd}} "the garden", and {{lang|cy|gwaith}} "work" becomes {{lang|cy|ei waith}} "his work".
|}

The mutation ''ts'' → ''j'' corresponds to the ''t'' → ''d'' mutation and reflects a change heard in modern words borrowed from English. Borrowed words like {{lang|cy|tsips/jips}} (chips) can often be heard in Wales. {{lang|cy|Dw i'n mynd i gael tsips}} 'I'm going to get (some) chips'; {{lang|cy|Mae gen i jips}} 'I have chips'. However, the ''ts'' → ''j'' mutation is not usually included the classic list of Welsh mutations and is rarely taught in formal classes. Nevertheless, it is a part of the colloquial language and is used by native speakers.

===== ''h''-prothesis =====
[[Prothesis (linguistics)|h-''prothesis'']] is a feature in Welsh in which a vowel-initial word becomes ''h''-initial. It occurs after the possessive pronouns {{lang|cy|ei}} 'her', {{lang|cy|ein}} 'our', and {{lang|cy|eu}} 'their': {{lang|cy|oedran}} 'age', {{lang|cy|ei '''h'''oedran}} 'her age' (cf. {{lang|cy|ei oedran}} 'his age'). It also occurs with {{lang|cy|ugain}} 'twenty' after {{lang|cy|ar}} 'on' in the traditional counting system: {{lang|cy|un ar '''h'''ugain}} 'twenty-one', literally "one on twenty".

==== Irish ====
{{further|Irish initial mutations}}
[[Irish language|Irish]] has two consonant mutations: ''[[lenition]]'' ({{Langx|ga|séimhiú}} {{IPA|ga|ˈʃeːvʲuː|}}) and ''eclipsis'' ({{Lang|ga|urú}} {{IPA|ga|ˈʊɾˠuː|}}).

===== Lenition =====
Lenition ({{lang|ga|séimhiú}}) is indicated by an {{vr|h}} following the consonant in question or, in some older typefaces and texts, by an [[dot (diacritic)|overdot]] ({{vr|◌̇}}) above the letter that has undergone lenition. The effects of lenition are as follows:

# A stop becomes a fricative. [[Voice (phonetics)|Voicing]] is retained, as is [[place of articulation]] except for the [[coronal consonant|coronals]].
#*{{IPA|/pˠ/}} → {{IPA|/fˠ/}}
#*{{IPA|/pʲ/}} → {{IPA|/fʲ/}}
#*{{IPA|/t̪ˠ/}} → {{IPA|/h/}}
#*{{IPA|/tʲ/}} → {{IPA|/h/}}
#*{{IPA|/k/}} → {{IPA|/x/}}
#*{{IPA|/c/}} → {{IPA|/ç/}}
#*{{IPA|/bˠ/}} → {{IPA|/w/}}, {{IPA|/v/}}
#*{{IPA|/bʲ/}} → {{IPA|/vʲ/}}
#*{{IPA|/d̪ˠ/}} → {{IPA|/ɣ/}}
#*{{IPA|/dʲ/}} → {{IPA|/j/}}
#*{{IPA|/ɡ/}} → {{IPA|/ɣ/}}
#*{{IPA|/ɟ/}} → {{IPA|/j/}}
#*{{IPA|/mˠ/}} → {{IPA|/w/}}
#*{{IPA|/mʲ/}} → {{IPA|/vʲ/}}
# {{IPA|/sˠ/}} and {{IPA|/ʃ/}} become {{IPA|/h/}}, but {{IPA|/sˠp(ʲ)/}}, {{IPA|/sˠm(ʲ)/}}, {{IPA|/sˠt̪ˠ/}}, {{IPA|/ʃtʲ/}}, {{IPA|/sˠk/}}, and {{IPA|/ʃc/}} do not mutate.
# {{IPA|/fˠ/}} and {{IPA|/fʲ/}} are deleted.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Examples
|-
!Unmutated
!Lenition
!Gloss
|-
|{{Lang|ga|peann}} {{IPA|/pʲaːn̪ˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|pheann}} {{IPA|/fʲaːn̪ˠ/}}
|"pen"
|-
|{{Lang|ga|teach}} {{IPA|/tʲax/}}
|{{Lang|ga|theach}} {{IPA|/hax/}}
|"house"
|-
|{{Lang|ga|ceann}} {{IPA|/caːn̪ˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|cheann}} {{IPA|/çaːn̪ˠ/}}
|"head"
|-
|{{Lang|ga|bean}} {{IPA|/bʲanˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|bhean}} {{IPA|/vʲanˠ/}}
|"woman"
|-
|{{Lang|ga|droim}} {{IPA|/d̪ˠɾˠiːmʲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|dhroim}} {{IPA|/ɣɾˠiːmʲ/}}
|"back"
|-
|{{Lang|ga|glúin}} {{IPA|/ɡl̪ˠuːnʲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|ghlúin}} {{IPA|/ɣl̪ˠuːnʲ/}}
|"knee"
|-
|{{Lang|ga|máthair}} {{IPA|/mˠaːhəɾʲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|mháthair}} {{IPA|/waːhəɾʲ/}}
|"mother"
|-
|{{Lang|ga|súil}} {{IPA|/sˠuːlʲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|shúil}} {{IPA|/huːlʲ/}}
|"eye"
|-
|{{Lang|ga|freagra}} {{IPA|/fʲɾʲaɡɾˠə/}}
|{{Lang|ga|fhreagra}} {{IPA|/ɾʲaɡɾˠə/}}
|"answer"
|}

===== Eclipsis =====
The following tables show how eclipsis affects the start of words. Eclipsis is represented in the orthography by adding a letter, or occasionally two letters, to the start of the word. If the word is to be capitalised, the original first letter is capitalised, not the letter or letters added for eclipsis, e.g. the {{vr|bhF}} in {{lang|ga|Amhrán na '''bhF'''iann}}, Ireland's national anthem.

{| class="wikitable"
!Sound change
!Unmutated
!Eclipsis
!Gloss
!Notes
|-
|{{IPA|/pˠ/}} → {{IPA|/bˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|práta}} {{IPA|/pˠɾˠaːt̪ˠə/}}
|{{Lang|ga|bpráta}} {{IPA|/bˠɾˠaːt̪ˠə/}}
|"potato"
|rowspan="8"|A voiceless stop or /fˠ, fʲ/ is voiced.
|-
|{{IPA|/pʲ/}} → {{IPA|/bʲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|peann}} {{IPA|/pʲaːnˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|bpeann}} {{IPA|/bʲaːnˠ/}}
|"pen"
|-
|{{IPA|/t̪ˠ/}} → {{IPA|/d̪ˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|tráta}} {{IPA|/t̪ˠɾˠaːt̪ˠə/}}
|{{Lang|ga|dtráta}} {{IPA|/d̪ˠɾˠaːt̪ˠə/}}
|"tomato"
|-
|{{IPA|/tʲ/}} → {{IPA|/dʲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|teanga}} {{IPA|/tʲaŋ(ɡ)ə/}}
|{{Lang|ga|dteanga}} {{IPA|/dʲaŋ(ɡ)ə/}}
|"tongue"
|-
|{{IPA|/k/}} → {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|cat}} {{IPA|/kat̪ˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|gcat}} {{IPA|/gat̪ˠ/}}
|"cat"
|-
|{{IPA|/c/}} → {{IPA|/ɟ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|ceann}} {{IPA|/caːn̪ˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|gceann}} {{IPA|/ɟaːn̪ˠ/}}
|"head"
|-
|{{IPA|/fˠ/}} → {{IPA|/w/}}
|{{Lang|ga|focal}} {{IPA|/fˠɔkəlˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|bhfocal}} {{IPA|/wɔkəlˠ/}}
|"word"
|-
|{{IPA|/fʲ/}} → {{IPA|/vʲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|freagra}} {{IPA|/fʲɾʲaɡɾˠə/}}
|{{Lang|ga|bhfreagra}} {{IPA|/vʲɾʲaɡɾˠə/}}
|"answer"
|-
|{{IPA|/bˠ/}} → {{IPA|/mˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|bainne}} {{IPA|/bˠan̠ʲə/}}
|{{Lang|ga|mbainne}} {{IPA|/mˠan̠ʲə/}}
|"milk"
|rowspan="6"|A voiced stop becomes a nasal.
|-
|{{IPA|/bʲ/}} → {{IPA|/mʲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|bean}} {{IPA|/bʲanˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|mbean}} {{IPA|/mʲanˠ/}}
|"woman"
|-
|{{IPA|/d̪ˠ/}} → {{IPA|/n̪ˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|droim}} {{IPA|/d̪ˠɾˠiːmʲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|ndroim}} {{IPA|/n̪ˠɾˠiːmʲ/}}
|"back"
|-
|{{IPA|/dʲ/}} → {{IPA|/n̠ʲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|dinnéar}} {{IPA|/dʲɪn̠ʲeːɾˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|ndinnéar}} {{IPA|/n̠ʲɪn̠ʲeːɾˠ/}}
|"dinner"
|-
|{{IPA|/ɡ/}} → {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|glúin}} {{IPA|/ɡɫ̪uːnʲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|nglúin}} {{IPA|/ŋɫ̪uːnʲ/}}
|"knee"
|-
|{{IPA|/ɟ/}} → {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|geata}} {{IPA|/ɟat̪ˠə/}}
|{{Lang|ga|ngeata}} {{IPA|/ɲat̪ˠə/}}
|"gate"
|-
|{{IPA|/eː/}} → {{IPA|/n̠ʲeː/}}
|{{Lang|ga|éan}} {{IPA|/eːnˠ/}}
|{{Lang|ga|n-éan}} {{IPA|/n̠ʲeːnˠ/}}
|"bird"
|rowspan="2"|A vowel receives a preceding {{IPA|/n̪ˠ/}} (before {{vr|a, o, u}}), or {{IPA|/n̠ʲ/}} (before {{vr|e, i}}).
|-
|{{IPA|/iː/}} → {{IPA|/n̪ˠiː/}}
|{{Lang|ga|oíche}} {{IPA|/iːçə/}}
|{{Lang|ga|n-oíche}} {{IPA|/n̪ˠiːçə/}}
|"night"
|}