Editing Constantius II (section)

== Solo reign ==
[[File:Constantius2cng10400876.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Solidus (coin)|''Solidus'']] struck at [[Mediolanum]] in 354–357. The reverse reads ''gloria rei publicae'', "glory of the republic".]]
Constantius spent much of the rest of 353 and early 354 on campaign against the [[Alamanni]] on the Danube frontier. The campaign was successful and raiding by the Alamanni ceased temporarily. In the meantime, Constantius had been receiving disturbing reports regarding the actions of his cousin Gallus.<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' 14.1.10</ref> Possibly as a result of these reports, Constantius concluded a peace with the Alamanni and traveled to [[Mediolanum]] ([[Milan]]).<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XIV.10.16</ref>

In Mediolanum, Constantius first summoned [[Ursicinus (magister equitum)|Ursicinus]], Gallus's ''[[magister equitum]]'', for reasons that remain unclear.<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XIV.11.3–5</ref> Constantius then summoned Gallus and Constantina.<ref name="ReferenceC">[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XIV.11.6</ref> Although Gallus and Constantina complied with the order at first, when Constantina died in [[Bithynia]],<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Gallus began to hesitate. However, after some convincing by one of Constantius's agents,<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XIV.11.11–12</ref> Gallus continued his journey west, passing through [[Constantinople]] and [[Thracia (Roman province)|Thrace]] to [[Poetovio]] ([[Ptuj]]) in [[Pannonia]].<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XIV.11.19</ref><ref name="roman-emperors.org">{{cite web| url = http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallus.htm| title = Banchich, T. M., 'DIR-Gallus' from De Imperatoribus Romanis| access-date = 2 March 2009| archive-date = 10 December 2008| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081210150345/http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallus.htm| url-status = dead}}</ref>

In Poetovio, Gallus was arrested by the soldiers of Constantius under the command of [[Barbatio]].<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XIV.11.20</ref> Gallus was then moved to [[Pula|Pola]] and interrogated. Gallus claimed that it was Constantina who was to blame for all the trouble while he was in charge of the eastern provinces.<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XIV.11.22</ref> This angered Constantius so greatly that he immediately ordered Gallus's execution.<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XIV.11.23</ref> He soon changed his mind, however, and recanted the order.<ref>[[Joannes Zonaras|Zonaras]], ''Extracts of History'' XIII.9.20</ref><ref>[[Libanius]], ''Orations'' XVIII.152</ref><ref>Philostorgius, ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' 4.1</ref> Unfortunately for Gallus, this second order was delayed by [[Eusebius (praepositus sacri cubiculi)|Eusebius]], one of Constantius's eunuchs, and Gallus was executed.<ref name="roman-emperors.org"/>

===Religious issues===
[[File:07 constantius2Chrono354.png|thumb|right|270px|Constantius II depicted in the [[Chronography of 354]] dispensing largesse (a [[Renaissance]] copy of a [[Carolingian art|Carolingian]] copy)]]

[[File:Byzantine - Belt Section with Medallions of Constantius II and Faustina - Walters 57527 - Back.jpg|right|thumb|Section of a belt containing two gold medallions, the larger coin depicting the triumphant emperor in his chariot;<ref>{{cite web |publisher= [[The Walters Art Museum]]
|url= http://art.thewalters.org/detail/# |title= Belt Section with Medallions of Constantius II and Faustina}}</ref> The Walters Art Museum]]
{{Main|Religious policies of Constantius II}}

====Paganism====
Laws dating from the 350s prescribed the death penalty for those who performed or attended pagan [[sacrifice]]s, and for the worshipping of [[cult image|idols]].<ref name="Kirsch04pp200-201">Kirsch, J. (2004) ''God against the Gods'', pp.200-1, Viking Compass</ref><ref name="CodexTheodosianus16.10.2">''The Codex Theodosianus On Religion'', 16.10.2</ref><ref name="CodexTheodosianus16.10.6">Theodosian Code 16.10.6</ref> Pagan temples were shut down,<ref name="CodexTheodosianus16.10.4">{{cite web| url = http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/codex-theod1.html| title = 'The Codex Theodosianus On Religion', XVI.x.4, 4 CE}}</ref><ref name="hughes"/> and the [[Altar of Victory]] was removed from the Senate meeting house.<ref name="Sheridan66">Sheridan, J.J. (1966) ''The Altar of Victor – Paganism's Last Battle.'' in L'Antiquite Classique 35 : 186–187.</ref> There were also frequent episodes of ordinary Christians destroying, pillaging and desecrating many ancient pagan temples, tombs and monuments.<ref name="Ammianus22.4.3">[[Ammianus Marcellinus]] ''Res Gestae'' 22.4.3</ref><ref>[[Sozomen]] ''Ecclesiastical History'' [https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/26023.htm 3.18].</ref><ref name="CodexTheodosianus16.10.3">Theodosian Code 16.10.3</ref><ref name="CodexTheodosianus9.17.2">Theodosian Code 9.17.2</ref>
Paganism was still popular among the population at the time. The emperor's policies were passively resisted by many governors and magistrates.<ref name="hughes">"A History of the Church", Philip Hughes, Sheed & Ward, rev ed 1949, vol I chapter 6.[http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/HUGHHIST.TXT] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181223191523/http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/HUGHHIST.TXT|date=23 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="Ammianus9.10and19.12">[[Ammianus Marcellinus]] ''Res Gestae'' 9.10, 19.12. quote summary: Ammianus  describes Pagan sacrifices and worship taking place openly in [[Alexandria]] and [[Rome]]. The [[Roman Calendar]] of 354 cites many Pagan festivals as though they were still being openly observed. See also the descriptions of Pagan worship in the following works: Firmicius Maternus De Errore Profanorum Religionum; Vetus Orbis Descriptio Graeci Scriptoris sub Constantio.</ref><ref name="Bowder1978">Bowder, D. (1978) ''The Age of Constantine and Julian''</ref>

In spite of this, Constantius never made any attempt to disband the various Roman priestly colleges or the [[Vestal Virgin]]s. He never acted against the various pagan schools. At times, he actually made some effort to protect paganism. In fact, he even ordered the election of a priest for Africa.{{sfn|Vasiliev|1958|p=68}} Also, he remained [[pontifex maximus]] and was deified by the Roman Senate after his death. His relative moderation toward paganism is reflected by the fact that it was over twenty years after his death, during the reign of [[Gratian]], that any pagan senator protested his treatment of their religion.{{sfn|Salzman|2002|p=182}}

====Christianity====
Although often considered an [[Arianism|Arian]],{{sfn|Jones|1964|p=118}} Constantius ultimately preferred a third, compromise version that lay somewhere in between [[Arianism]] and the [[Nicene Creed]], retrospectively called [[Semi-Arianism]].<ref>Pelikan, J. J., ''The Christian Tradition'' (1989), pp. 209–210</ref>{{sfn|Gaddis|2005|p=92}} During his reign he attempted to mold the Christian church to follow this compromise position, convening several Christian councils. "Unfortunately for his memory the theologians whose advice he took were ultimately discredited and the malcontents whom he pressed to conform emerged victorious," writes the historian [[A. H. M. Jones]]. "The great councils of 359–60 are therefore not reckoned [[Ecumenical council|ecumenical]] in the tradition of the church, and Constantius II is not remembered as a restorer of unity, but as a heretic who arbitrarily imposed his will on the church."{{sfn|Jones|1964|p=118}}

According to the [[Greek historian]] [[Philostorgius]] (d. 439) in his ''Ecclesiastical History'', Constantius sent an [[Arianism|Arian]] bishop known as [[Theophilos the Indian|Theophilus the Indian]] (also known as "Theophilus of Yemen") to [[Tharan Yuhanim]], then the king of the [[South Arabia]]n [[Himyarite Kingdom]] to convert the people to [[Christianity in pre-Islamic Arabia|Christianity]]. According to the report, Theophilus succeeded in establishing three churches, one of them in the capital [[Zafar, Yemen|Zafar]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fisher |first=Greg |title=Rome, Persia, and Arabia: shaping the Middle East from Pompey to Muhammad |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group |isbn=978-0-415-72880-5 |location=London & New York |page=90}}</ref>

====Judaism====
Judaism faced some severe restrictions under Constantius, who seems to have followed an anti-Jewish policy in line with that of his father.{{sfn|Schäfer|2003|p=180-181}} This included  edicts to limit the ownership of slaves by Jewish people<ref name="Codex Theodosianus 16.9.2">[[Codex Theodosianus]] 16.9.2</ref> and banning marriages between Jews and Christian women.<ref name="Codex Theodosianus 16.9.2"/> Later edicts sought to discourage conversions from Christianity to Judaism by confiscating the [[Apostacy|apostate's]] property.<ref name="Codex Theodosianus 16.8.7">[[Codex Theodosianus]] 16.8.7</ref> However, Constantius's actions in this regard may not have been so much to do with Jewish religion as with Jewish business—apparently, privately owned Jewish businesses were often in competition with state-owned businesses. As a result, Constantius may have sought to provide an advantage to state-owned businesses by limiting the skilled workers and slaves available to Jewish businesses.{{sfn|Schäfer|2003|pp=180–181}}

===Further crises===
On 11 August 355, the ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Claudius Silvanus]] revolted in Gaul. Silvanus had surrendered to Constantius after the [[Battle of Mursa Major]]. Constantius had made him ''magister militum'' in 353 with the purpose of blocking the German threats, a feat that Silvanus achieved by bribing the German tribes with the money he had collected. A plot organized by members of Constantius's court led the emperor to recall Silvanus. After Silvanus revolted, he received a letter from Constantius recalling him to Milan, but which made no reference to the revolt. [[Ursicinus (magister equitum)|Ursicinus]], who was meant to replace Silvanus, bribed some troops, and Silvanus was killed.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

Constantius realised that too many threats still faced the Empire, however, and he could not possibly handle all of them by himself. So on 6 November 355,<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XV.8.17</ref> he elevated his last remaining male relative, [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], to the rank of ''caesar''.<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XV.8.5–16</ref> A few days later, Julian was married to [[Helena, wife of Julian|Helena]], the last surviving sister of Constantius.<ref name="autogenerated2">[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XV.8.18</ref> Constantius soon sent Julian off to Gaul.<ref name="autogenerated2"/>
[[File:2009 Carnuntum Heidentor1.jpg|thumb|Triumphal arch of Constantius II in [[Carnuntum]], Pannonia]]
Constantius spent the next few years overseeing affairs in the western part of the empire primarily from his base at Mediolanum. In April–May 357 he visited [[Rome]] for the only time in his life. The same year, he forced [[Sarmatians|Sarmatian]] and [[Quadi]] invaders out of Pannonia and [[Moesia|Moesia Inferior]], then led a successful counter-attack across the Danube.<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XVI.12</ref>

In the winter of 357–58, Constantius received ambassadors from [[Shapur II]] who demanded that Rome restore the lands surrendered by [[Narseh]].<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XVII.5.3–8</ref><ref>[[Joannes Zonaras|Zonaras]], ''Extracts of History'' XII.9.25–27</ref> Despite rejecting these terms,<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XVII.5.9–14</ref><ref>[[Joannes Zonaras|Zonaras]], ''Extracts of History'' XII.9.28–29</ref> Constantius tried to avert war with the [[Sassanid Empire]] by sending two embassies to Shapur II.<ref>[[Libanius]], ''Epistle'' 331</ref><ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XVII.14.1–3 & XVIII.6.17–18</ref><ref>[[Eunapius]], ''Lives of the Sophists'' VI. 5.1–10</ref> Shapur II nevertheless launched another invasion of Roman Mesopotamia. In 360, when news reached Constantius that Shapur II had destroyed [[Singara]] ([[Sinjar]]),<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XX.6</ref> and taken [[Hasankeyf|Kiphas]] ([[Hasankeyf]]), Amida (Diyarbakır),<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XIX</ref> and Ad Tigris ([[Cizre]]),<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XX.7.1–16</ref> he decided to travel east to face the re-emergent threat.

===Usurpation of Julian and crises in the east===
[[File:The triumph of Constantius II.jpg|thumb|270px|Missorium of Kerch depicting Constantius II on horseback with a spear. He is preceded by victory and accompanied by a guardsman ([[Hermitage Museum]]).]]
In the meantime, Julian had won some victories against the [[Alamanni]], who had once again invaded [[Roman Gaul]]. However, when Constantius requested reinforcements from Julian's army for the eastern campaign, the Gallic legions revolted and proclaimed Julian ''augustus''.{{sfn|Drinkwater|2007|p=253}}{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=505}}{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=57}}{{efn|Ammianus and Julian both portrayed Constantius's order as fueled by envy of the Caesar’s growing popularity, with the additional intent of weakening his military position, as he had previously done with Gallus.<ref>Walter E. Roberts and Michael DiMaio Jr., [http://www.roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/julian.htm Julian (361–363 A.D.)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924080550/http://roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/julian.htm |date=24 September 2023 }}</ref> Crawford was skeptical of such a portrayal, believing that Julian would’ve needed far less troops than Constantius if he was really as successful as he portrayed himself,{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=212}} while Potter dismissed the idea, believing that the necessity of Constantius's act for his plan was sufficient explanation.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=505}}}}

On account of the immediate Sassanid threat, Constantius was unable to directly respond to his cousin's usurpation, other than by sending missives in which he tried to convince Julian to resign the title of ''augustus'' and be satisfied with that of ''caesar''. By 361, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with force, and yet the threat of the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanids]] remained. Constantius had already spent part of early 361 unsuccessfully attempting to re-take the fortress of Ad Tigris.<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XX.11.6–25</ref> After a time he had withdrawn to [[Antioch]] to regroup and prepare for a confrontation with [[Shapur II]].<ref>[[Ammianus Marcellinus]], ''Res Gestae'' XXI.7.7 & 13.1–5</ref> The campaigns of the previous year had inflicted heavy losses on the Sassanids, however, and they did not attempt another round of campaigns that year. This temporary respite in hostilities allowed Constantius to turn his full attention to facing Julian.{{sfn|Vagi|2001|p=508}}

===Death===
Constantius immediately gathered his forces and set off west. However, by the time he reached [[Mopsuestia]] in Cilicia, it was clear that he was fatally ill and would not survive to face Julian. The sources claim that realising his death was near, Constantius had himself baptised by Euzoius, the [[Semi-Arianism|Semi-Arian]] bishop of [[Antioch]], and then declared that Julian was his rightful successor.{{sfn|Vagi|2001|p=508}}{{efn|Ammianus only recorded Constantius's legitimization of Julian as a rumor. While Hunt and Matthews treated the report with caution,{{sfn|Hunt|1998|p=60}}{{sfn|Matthews|1989|p=101}}
 Kelly considered it to be true, observing that the act prevented civil war and protected his posthumous reputation, as well as his wife’s unborn child.<ref>Kelly, Gavin (2013). "The Political Crisis of AD 375–376" (PDF). Chiron p. 357</ref> Errington and Crawford also accepted it as true, viewing it as a display of pragmatism and dynastic solidarity.{{sfn|Errington|2006|p=18}}{{sfn|Crawford|2016|p=239}}}}
Constantius II died of fever on 3 November 361.<ref>The manuscript of Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'' 21.15.2 reads ''tertium nonarum Octobrium'', which is the equivalent of 5 October. The latest editor of the ''Res Gestae'' accepts Otto Seeck's emendation ''tertium nonarum Novembrium'' which is the equivalent of 3 November. T.D. Barnes (''Classical Philology'', 88 [1993], pp. 64f) provides indirect evidence showing 3 November is a better fit.</ref>

Like Constantine the Great, he was buried in the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]], in a [[Porphyry (geology)#Imperial sarcophagi|porphyry sarcophagus]] that was described in the 10th century by [[Constantine VII|Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus]] in the ''[[De Ceremoniis]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Vasiliev|first=A. A.|year=1948|title=Imperial Porphyry Sarcophagi in Constantinople|url=https://lucazavagno.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/vasiliev.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191231151500/https://lucazavagno.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/vasiliev.pdf |archive-date=2019-12-31 |url-status=live|journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers|volume=4|pages=1+3–26|doi=10.2307/1291047|jstor=1291047}}</ref>