Editing Craniometry (section)

== Craniometry, phrenology and physiognomy ==
{{Further|Phrenology|Physiognomy|Anthropological criminology}}
Craniometry was also used in [[phrenology]], which purported to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head and thus of the skull. At the turn of the 19th century, [[Franz Joseph Gall]] (1758–1822) developed "cranioscopy" (Ancient Greek ''kranion'': skull, ''scopos'': vision), a method to determine the personality and development of mental and moral faculties on the basis of the external shape of the skull.

Cranioscopy was later renamed to phrenology (''phrenos'': mind, ''logos'': study) by his student [[Johann Spurzheim]] (1776–1832), who wrote extensively on the "Drs. Gall and Spurzheim's [[physiognomy|physiognomical]] System". Physiognomy claimed a correlation between physical features (especially facial features) and character traits.

It was made famous by [[Cesare Lombroso]] (1835–1909), the founder of [[anthropological criminology]], who claimed to be able to scientifically identify links between the nature of a crime and the personality or physical appearance of the offender. The originator of the concept of a "[[born criminal]]" and arguing in favor of [[biological determinism]], Lombroso tried to recognize criminals by measurements of their bodies.

He concluded that skull and facial features were clues to genetic criminality, and that these features could be measured with craniometers and calipers with the results developed into quantitative research. A few of the 14 identified traits of a criminal included large [[jaw]]s, forward projection of jaw, low sloping forehead; high [[cheekbone]]s, flattened or upturned nose; handle-shaped ears; hawk-like noses or fleshy [[lip]]s; hard shifty eyes; scanty beard or baldness; insensitivity to pain; long arms, and so on.