Editing Crucible (section)

===Iron Age===
The use of crucibles in the [[Iron Age]] remains very similar to that of the [[Bronze Age]] with copper and tin smelting being used to produce [[bronze]]. The Iron Age crucible designs remain the same as the Bronze Age.{{cn|date=January 2021}}

The Roman period shows technical innovations, with crucibles for new methods used to produce new alloys. The smelting and melting process also changed with both the heating technique and the crucible design. The crucible changed into rounded or pointed bottom vessels with a more conical shape; these were heated from below, unlike prehistoric types which were irregular in shape and were heated from above. These designs gave greater stability within the charcoal.<ref>Bayley & Rehren 2007: p 49</ref> These crucibles in some cases have thinner walls and have more refractory properties.<ref>Tylecote 1976: p 20</ref>

During the Roman period a new process of metalworking started, [[cementation process|cementation]], used in the production of [[brass]]. This process involves the combination of a metal and a gas to produce an alloy.<ref>Zwicker et al. 1985: p 107</ref> Brass is made by mixing solid copper metal with zinc oxide or carbonate which comes in the form of [[Calamine (mineral)|calamine]] or [[smithsonite]].<ref>Rehren 2003: p 209</ref> This is heated to about 900&nbsp;°C, the zinc oxide vaporizes into a gas, and the zinc gas bonds with the molten copper.<ref>Rehren 1999: p 1085</ref> This reaction has to take place in a part-closed or closed container otherwise the zinc vapor would escape before it can react with the copper. Cementation crucibles, therefore, have a lid or cap which limits the amount of gas loss from the crucible. The crucible design is similar to the smelting and melting crucibles of the period utilizing the same material as the smelting and melting crucibles. The conical shape and smallmouth allowed the lid to be added. These small crucibles are seen in [[Colonia Ulpia Trajana]] (modern-day [[Xanten]]), Germany, where the crucibles are around 4&nbsp;cm in size, however, these are small examples.<ref>Rehren Th., 1999, ''Small Size, Large Scale Roman brass Production in Germania Inferior'', Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 26, pp 1083–1087</ref> There are examples of larger vessels such as cooking pots and amphorae being used for cementation to process larger amounts of brass; since the reaction takes place at low temperatures lower fired ceramics could be used.<ref name="rehren03" /> The ceramic vessels which are used are important as the vessel must be able to lose gas through the walls otherwise the pressure would break the vessel. Cementation vessels are mass-produced due to crucibles having to be broken open to remove the brass once the reaction has finished as in most cases the lid would have baked hard to the vessel or the brass might have adhered to the vessel walls.