Editing Decentralization (section)

=== Goals ===
Decentralization in any area is a response to the problems of centralized systems. Decentralization in government, the topic most studied, has been seen as a solution to problems like economic decline, government inability to fund services and their general decline in performance of overloaded services, the demands of minorities for a greater say in local governance, the general weakening legitimacy of the [[public sector]] and global and international pressure on countries with inefficient, undemocratic, overly centralized systems.<ref name=Daun>Holger Daun, ''School Decentralization in the Context of Globalizing Governance: International Comparison of Grassroots Responses,'' Springer, 2007, [https://books.google.com/books?id=nYHXnyzGggkC&dq=goals+of+decentralization&pg=PA28 pp. 28–29] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617152055/https://books.google.com/books?id=nYHXnyzGggkC&pg=PA28 |date=2016-06-17 }},
{{ISBN|978-1402047008}}</ref> The following four goals or objectives are frequently stated in various analyses of decentralization.

; Participation

In decentralization, the principle of [[subsidiarity]] is often invoked. It holds that the lowest or least centralized authority that is capable of addressing an issue effectively should do so. According to one definition: "Decentralization, or decentralizing governance, refers to the restructuring or reorganization of authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions of governance at the central, regional and local levels according to the principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and effectiveness of the system of governance while increasing the authority and capacities of sub-national levels."<ref>"Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions", 1999, pp. 2, 16, 26.</ref>

Decentralization is often linked to concepts of participation in decision-making, democracy, equality and liberty from a higher authority.<ref>Subhabrata Dutta, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=O8X_NxDWDq4C&q=decentralization+Dutta Democratic decentralization and grassroot leadership in India] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319044525/http://books.google.com/books?id=O8X_NxDWDq4C&printsec=frontcover |date=2015-03-19 }}'', Mittal Publications, 2009, pp. 5–8, {{ISBN|978-8183242738}}</ref><ref>Robert Charles Vipond, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=_iTJdiemMoUC&dq=Vipond+Liberty+and+Community&pg=PA252 Liberty & Community: Canadian Federalism and the Failure of the Constitution] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624053945/https://books.google.com/books?id=_iTJdiemMoUC&pg=PA252 |date=2016-06-24 }}'', [[SUNY Press]], 1991, p. 145, {{ISBN|978-0791404669}}</ref> Decentralization enhances the democratic voice.<ref name=Warner/> Theorists believe that local representative authorities with actual discretionary powers are the basis of decentralization that can lead to local efficiency, equity and development."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ribot|first=J|s2cid=55187335|title=Democratic Decentralisation of Natural Resources: Institutional Choice and Discretionary Power Transfers in Sub-Saharan Africa|journal=[[Public Administration and Development]]|year=2003|volume=23|pages=53–65|doi=10.1002/pad.259}}</ref> [[Columbia University]]'s [[Earth Institute]] identified one of three major trends relating to decentralization: "increased involvement of local jurisdictions and civil society in the management of their affairs, with new forms of participation, consultation, and partnerships."<ref name=EarthInstitute/>

Decentralization has been described as a "counterpoint to globalization [which] removes decisions from the local and national stage to the global sphere of multi-national or non-national interests. Decentralization brings decision-making back to the sub-national levels". Decentralization strategies must account for the interrelations of global, regional, national, sub-national, and local levels.<ref>"Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions", 1999, pp. 12–13.</ref>

; Diversity
[[Norman L. Johnson]] writes that diversity plays an important role in decentralized systems like [[ecosystems]], [[social groups]], large organizations, [[political systems]]. "Diversity is defined to be unique properties of entities, agents, or individuals that are not shared by the larger group, population, structure. Decentralized is defined as a property of a system where the agents have some ability to operate "locally." Both decentralization and diversity are necessary attributes to achieve the self-organizing properties of interest."<ref name=NLJohnson/>

Advocates of political decentralization hold that greater participation by better informed diverse interests in society will lead to more relevant decisions than those made only by authorities on the national level.<ref name=WorldBank>[http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/decentralization/political.htm#2 Political Decentralization] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409101601/http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/decentralization/political.htm |date=2013-04-09 }}, Decentralization and Subnational Economies project, [[World Bank]] website, ''accessed February 9, 2013''.</ref> Decentralization has been described as a response to demands for diversity.<ref name=EarthInstitute/><ref>Therese A McCarty, [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6435.1993.tb02422.x/abstract Demographic diversity and the size of the public sector] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522094501/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6435.1993.tb02422.x/abstract |date=2014-05-22 }}, [[Kyklos (journal)|Kyklos]], 1993, via [[John Wiley & Sons#Wiley Online Library|Wiley Online Library]]. Quote: "if demographic diversity promotes greater decentralization, the size of the public
sector is not affected 10 consequently."</ref>

; Efficiency
In business, decentralization leads to a [[management by objectives|management by results]] philosophy which focuses on definite objectives to be achieved by unit results.<ref>"Decentralization: A Sampling of Definitions", 1999, p. 11.</ref> Decentralization of government programs is said to increase efficiency – and effectiveness – due to reduction of congestion in communications, quicker reaction to unanticipated problems, improved ability to deliver services, improved information about local conditions, and more support from beneficiaries of programs.<ref>Jerry M. Silverman, ''Public Sector Decentralization: Economic Policy and Sector Investment Programs, Volume 188'', [[World Bank Publications]], 1992, [https://books.google.com/books?id=XtoXuSHMclIC&dq=efficiency+decentralization&pg=PA4 p. 4] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528203217/https://books.google.com/books?id=XtoXuSHMclIC&pg=PA4 |date=2016-05-28 }}, {{ISBN|978-0821322796}}</ref>

Firms may prefer decentralization because it ensures efficiency by making sure that managers closest to the local information make decisions and in a more timely fashion; that their taking responsibility frees upper management for long term strategics rather than day-to-day decision-making; that managers have hands on training to prepare them to move up the management hierarchy; that managers are motivated by having the freedom to exercise their own initiative and creativity; that managers and divisions are encouraged to prove that they are profitable, instead of allowing their failures to be masked by the overall profitability of the company.<ref>Don R. Hansen, Maryanne M. Mowen, Liming Guan, ''Cost Management: Accounting & Control'', Cengage Learning, 2009, [https://books.google.com/books?id=10eIDgRH3EgC&dq=reason+for++decentralization&pg=PA338 p. 338] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513052225/https://books.google.com/books?id=10eIDgRH3EgC&pg=PA338 |date=2016-05-13 }}, {{ISBN|978-0324559675}}</ref>

The same principles can be applied to the government. Decentralization promises to enhance efficiency through both inter-governmental competitions with market features and fiscal discipline which assigns tax and expenditure authority to the lowest level of government possible. It works best where members of the subnational government have strong traditions of democracy, accountability, and professionalism.<ref name=Warner/>

; Conflict resolution
Economic and/or political decentralization can help prevent or reduce conflict because they reduce actual or perceived inequities between various regions or between a region and the central government.<ref>David R. Cameron, Gustav Ranis, Annalisa Zinn, ''Globalization and Self-Determination: Is the Nation-State Under Siege?'', Taylor & Francis, 2006,    [https://books.google.com/books?id=bO-FSUEPO6MC&dq=%22conflict+resolution%22+decentralization&pg=PA202 p. 203] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503044314/https://books.google.com/books?id=bO-FSUEPO6MC&pg=PA202 |date=2016-05-03 }}, {{ISBN|978-0203086636}}</ref> Dawn Brancati finds that political decentralization reduces intrastate conflict unless politicians create political parties that mobilize minority and even extremist groups to demand more resources and power within national governments. However, the likelihood this will be done depends on factors like how democratic transitions happen and features like a regional party's proportion of legislative seats, a country's number of regional legislatures, elector procedures, and the order in which national and regional elections occur. Brancati holds that decentralization can promote peace if it encourages statewide parties to incorporate regional demands and limit the power of regional parties.<ref>Dawn Brancati, [https://books.google.com/books?id=g7eLksrA8LAC Peace by Design:Managing Intrastate Conflict through Decentralization], [[Oxford University Press]], 2009, {{ISBN|978-0191615221}}</ref>