Editing Diamond Jenness (section)

== Career (1911–1948) ==

=== Field work – Northern D’Entrecasteaux ===
From 1911 to 1912, as an Oxford Scholar, he studied a little-known group of people on the [[D'Entrecasteaux Islands]] in eastern [[Papua New Guinea]].<ref name="Rich"/> Jenness comments:

:::"They peered at me from out-of-the-way corners, or through the doors of their huts, always at a safe distance. Recalling a children's [game] I had learned in one of the coast villages, I stooped down, tapped the ground with my fingers and chanted the refrain. The children drew nearer and nearer, and one or two with broad smiles began to imitate me. Then with a piece of string, I made some of their own cat's cradle figures and held them out for their inspection. This turned the scale. Five minutes later a laughing crowd surrounded me…The natives could hardly believe that I was a white man, and kept asking my [guides] who I was, how I came to speak their language and where I had learned their game.”<ref name="Jenness 2008. p.33">Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, p.33</ref>

=== Canadian Arctic Expedition ===
In 1913, Jenness was invited to join the government-funded [[Canadian Arctic Expedition]] (CAE) that was led by two Arctic explorers - [[Vilhjalmur Stefansson]] and [[Rudolph Martin Anderson|R.M. Anderson]].<ref name="coltay">Collins, Henry B. & Taylor, William E. Jr. "[http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic23-2-71.pdf Diamond Jenness (1886–1969)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116195244/https://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca//arctic/Arctic23-2-71.pdf |date=2022-11-16 }}.</ref> He would be one of the two anthropologists on board; the other was Henri Beuchat.<ref name="helmer">Helmer, James. "[http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic36-1-108.pdf Arctic Profiles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116195239/https://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca//arctic/Arctic36-1-108.pdf |date=2022-11-16 }}". Department of Archaeology. Calgary, Canada.</ref> In June of that year, having barely recuperated from [[yellow fever]] contracted while in New Guinea, Jenness boarded the whaling vessel [[HMCS Karluk|''Karluk'']] along with 12 other scientists. The ship steamed up the British Columbia coastline towards [[Nome, Alaska]], where they met up with Stefansson who had purchased two 60-foot schooners to assist in the expedition work. The three vessels then proceeded towards their rendezvous point, [[Herschel Island]], just east of the mouth of the [[Mackenzie River]], Northwest Territories.<ref name="coltay"/>

The rendezvous never took place. On 12 August, the Karluk became locked in the sea ice. Stefansson, with his secretary McConnell, Jenness, Wilkins (later [[Sir Hubert Wilkins]]), and two Eskimos, set out to procure meat for the crew. While they were ashore, the Karluk drifted westward to the [[East Siberian Sea]], where it was eventually [[Last voyage of the Karluk|crushed in the ice]] off [[Wrangel Island]].<ref name="coltay"/><ref name="helmer"/> Thirteen of the crew perished on board, including Henri Beuchat.<ref name="natreca">Natural Resources Canada. [http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/trailblazers/diamond-jenness/692 Diamond Jenness profile] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203055944/http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/trailblazers/diamond-jenness/692 |date=2013-12-03 }}, nrcan.gc.ca; accessed February 3, 2018.</ref>

With the ship gone, the hunting party set off on foot towards [[Barrow, Alaska]] (Utqiaġvik), 150 miles away, hoping to meet the two other vessels involved in the expedition: the ''Mary Sachs'' and ''Alaska''.<ref name="helmer"/>  In Barrow, they learned that the two ships had anchored in Camden Bay, making it their winter base.<ref name="coltay"/> Jenness remained behind and spent the first winter at Harrison Bay, Alaska, where he learned how to speak the Northern Eskimo language, and compiled information about their customs and folklore. The next year, in 1914, assisted by interpreter Patsy Klengenberg (son of Gremnia, a [[Tikiġaġmiut|Tikigaq]] from Tigerah ([[Point Hope, Alaska|Point Hope]]), [[Noatak National Preserve|Noatak]]-[[Kobuk Valley National Park|Kobuk]], and the trader [[Christian Klengenberg]]), Jenness commenced studying the [[Copper Inuit]], sometimes called the [[Blond Eskimos]], in the [[Coronation Gulf]] area.<ref name="CDNM">Canadian Museum of History, [https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/hist/cae/peo60e.html]"The People of the CAE"</ref> This group of people had had very little contact with Europeans, and Jenness, now the only anthropologist, was solely in charge of recording the aboriginal way of life in this area.<ref name="coltay"/><ref name="helmer"/><ref name="natreca"/>

[[File:Ikpukhuak and his shaman wife Higalik.jpg|thumb|[[Hubert Wilkins]] photograph of Ikpukhuak and his shaman wife Higalik]]
Jenness spent two years with the Copper Inuit and lived as an adopted son of a hunter named Ikpukhuak and his shaman wife Higalik (name meaning Ice House).<ref name="coltay"/><ref name="helmer"/> During that time he hunted and travelled with his "family," sharing both their festivities and their famine.<ref name="helmer"/> By living with this Inuit family and partaking in their everyday experiences, Jenness did something that was "not often employed by other ethnologists" at the time: he lived with the people who were the subjects of his fieldwork.<ref name="coltay"/> As Morrison in his “Arctic Hunters: The Inuit and Diamond Jenness” states:  “His goal was to understand the Copper Inuit on their own terms, not in relation to some preconceived ‘ladder of creation’ with Europeans perched firmly at the top.”<ref>Morrison, David  “Arctic Hunters: The Inuit and Diamond Jenness”, 1992, Canadian Museum of Civilization, pp. 14-15</ref>

Summarizing his first year with the Copper Inuit, Jenness wrote:

:::"By Isolating myself among the Eskimos ... I had followed their wanderings day by day from autumn round to autumn. 
:::I had observed their reactions to every season, the disbanding of the tribes and their reassembling, the migrations 
:::from sea to land and from land to sea, the diversion from sealing to hunting, hunting to fishing, fishing to hunting, 
:::and then to sealing again. All these changes caused by their economic environment I had seen and studied; now, 
:::with a greater knowledge of the language, I could concentrate on other phases of their life and history."<ref>Jenness, Diamond “The People of the Twilight”, 1928f, p. 191</ref>

As anthropologist de Laguna noted years later, his “accomplishments are the more remarkable when it is remembered that Jenness had to perform not only his own duties but [also] those of his unfortunate colleague, Beauchat.”<ref name="deLaguna">de Laguna, Frederica. "Diamond Jenness, C. C. 1886-1969". American Anthropologist (New Series), v 73, February, 1971.</ref> Furthermore, Jenness's camera, anthropometric instruments, books, papers and even heavy winter clothing had all remained on board the ill-fated Karlak.<ref>Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. p.70 ISBN 978-0773539815</ref>

The CAE scientists kept daily diary logs, took extensive research notes, and collected samples which were shipped or brought back to Ottawa. Jenness collected a variety of ethnological materials from clothing and hunting tools to stories and games, and 137 [[Phonograph cylinder|wax phonographic cylinder]] song recordings he had made.<ref name="CDNM"/><ref name="coltay"/>  (The latter's musical transcription and analysis by Columbia University's Hellen H. Roberts with Jenness's word translations can be found in the monograph “Songs of the Copper Eskimos” (1925).<ref>Roberts, Helen Hefron and Diamond Jenness “Songs of the Copper Eskimos. Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913-18, Southern Party 1913-16, Volume XIV” Ottawa : F.A. Acland, 1925</ref> Eight of Jenness's Copper Inuit recordings can be heard on [http://www.ckug.ca/index.php?p=5_2 CKUG's website.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201124445/http://ckug.ca/index.php?p=5_2 |date=2021-12-01 }} The radio station is located in Kugluktuk, [[Nunavut]], Canada. The website also features a short video demonstrating how Jenness recorded these songs with the technology available in 1913.)

====Copper Inuit subgroups studied by Jenness====
Several subgroups were reported on by Jenness and they include:<ref>{{cite journal|year=1915|title=Anthropology in the Canadian Arctic Expedition|journal=Anthropologic Miscellanea|publisher=American Anthropological Association.|pages=776–780|jstor=660004|volume=17|issue=4}}</ref>
*[[Akuliakattagmiut]]
*[[Haneragmiut]]
*[[Kogluktogmiut]]
*[[Pallirmiut]]
*Puiplirmiut
*Uallirgmiut (Kanianermiut)

====Origin of the Copper Eskimos and their copper culture====
In his article in ''Geographical Review'', Jenness described how the Copper Inuit are more closely related to tribes of the east and southeast in comparison to western cultural groups, basing his conclusion on archaeological remains, materials used for housing, weapons, utensils, art, tattoos, customs, traditions, religion, and also linguistic patterns. He also considered how the dead are handled: whether they are covered by stone or wood, without any artifacts, as in the west, or “as in the east, laid out on the surface of the ground, unprotected but with replicas of their clothing and miniature implements placed beside them.”.<ref name="jenn">Jenness, Diamond. "Origin of Copper Eskimos and Their Copper Culture." Geographical Review. 13(4): 540–551.</ref>

Jenness characterized the "Copper Eskimos" as being in a pseudo-metal stage, in between the [[Stone Age|Stone]] and [[Iron Age]]s, because this cultural group treated copper as simply a malleable stone which is hammered into tools and weapons. He discussed whether the use of copper arose independently with different cultural groups or in one group and was then "borrowed" by others. Jenness goes on to explain that indigenous communities began to use copper first and following this, the Inuit adopted it. He cited the fact that slate was previously used among Inuit and was replaced by copper at a later time after the indigenous communities had begun to use it.<ref name="jenn"/>

=== First World War ===
The scientific members of the Canadian Arctic Expedition completed their mission and left the north in 1916. Jenness was assigned an office in the Victoria Museum of Ottawa and instructed to write up his expedition findings. After six months of feverishly working on his collections, notes, and initial reports for the government, Jenness, concerned about the events in Europe, enlisted in the World War 1 and served in France and Belgium. Being of slight build and short of stature, he was assigned to duties other than direct combat.<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, pp. 67-68.</ref>

===Field work and writing===

In December 1918, Jenness applied and received military leave to finish writing his Papua studies report in Oxford, (delayed due his having joined the CAE and then the war). While in Oxford, he received word that his unit was one of the first to be sent home from the war. Jenness returned to Ottawa in March, 1919, and the next month married his fiancé, Eileen Bleakney. After their honeymoon in New Zealand, Jenness set about writing up his Arctic reports, and produced eight government reports in five volumes, totaling 1,368 pages.<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, p. 76-77</ref> Richling states: “The scientific results of the Canadian Arctic Expedition filled fifteen volumes. One-third of them contained the product of Jenness's investigations.”<ref>Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 335. ISBN 978-0773539815.</ref>

==== Canadian First Nations ====
A year and a half after his return from the war, the Canadian Government made his employment at the Victoria Memorial Museum permanent, and he was assigned to study many of the Indian tribes of Canada. (Jenness's employment had previously been on a yearly contract basis.)<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, p. 78</ref>

The Sarcee, on a reserve in Calgary, Alberta, were the first of many First Nation tribes in Jenness's fieldwork. That experience also provided his first encounter with the deplorable conditions Canada's indigenous peoples experienced on reserves.<ref>Richling, Barnett (2012). In Twilight and in Dawn: A Biography of Diamond Jenness (Volume 67) (McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies). Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's University Press. p.163 ISBN 978-0773539815.</ref>  After the Sarcee, Jenness undertook fieldwork study of the Sekani. Beothuk (extinct), Ojibwa, and Salish. Collins and Taylor refer to Jenness's ''Indians of Canada'' (1931c) as "the definitive work on the Canadian aborigines, dealing comprehensively with the ethnology and history of the Canadian Indians and Eskimos".<ref name="coltay"/>

==== Archaeological discoveries ====
Although most of Jenness's time was devoted to [[First Nations in Canada|Indian]] studies and administrative duties, he also identified two very important prehistoric [[Eskimo]] cultures: the [[Dorset culture]] in Canada (in 1925)<ref>Jenness, D., 1925. "A new Eskimo culture in Hudson Bay". ''Geographical Review'', vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 428–437.</ref> and the [[Thule people#Old Bering Sea stage, 200&nbsp;BC to AD&nbsp;500|Old Bering Sea culture]] in [[Alaska]] (in 1926),<ref>Jenness, D., 1928. "Archaeological investigations in Bering Strait, 1926". ''National Museum of Canada Bulletin'' no. 50, pp. 71–80.</ref> for which he later was named "Father of Eskimo Archaeology."<ref>Collins, Henry B., 1967. "Diamond Jenness: Arctic Archaeology". ''The Beaver'', Autumn, pp. 78–79.</ref> These archaeological findings were fundamental in explaining migration patterns, and Jenness's views were thought to be "radical" at that time.  Helmer states: “These theories are now widely accepted, having been vindicated by carbon-14 dating and subsequent field research.”<ref name="helmer"/>

===Administrative duties===
In 1926, Jenness succeeded Canada's first Chief Anthropologist, Dr. [[Edward Sapir]], as Chief of Anthropology at the [[Canadian Museum of History|National Museum of Canada]], a position he retained until his retirement in 1948. During the intervening years, although hampered by the [[Great Depression]] and [[World War II]], he “strove passionately, but with mixed success, to improve the knowledge and welfare of Canada's aboriginal peoples and to enhance the international reputation of the National Museum.”<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, p. vii, Abstract</ref>

Other administrative duties during this time include representing Canada at the Fourth Pacific Science Congress in 1929, and chairing the Anthropological Section of the First Pacific Science Congress in 1933. Jenness also served as Canada's official delegate to the International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences in Copenhagen, 1938.

===Second World War and its aftermath===
In 1941, eager to contribute to the war effort, he was seconded to the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]], where he served until 1944 as civilian deputy director of Special Intelligence. In 1944, he was made chief of the newly established Inter-Services Topographic Section (ISTS), the non-military section of the [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Canadian Department of National Defence]] (patterned after a similar Great Britain military intelligence organization, [[Inter-Services Topographic Department]].) Jenness retained this position when, in 1947, the Canadian ISTS unit changed name (became the Geographic Bureau) and was placed under the Department of Mines and Resources.<ref>Jenness, Diamond and Stuart E. Jenness, 2008. "Through Darkening Spectacles: Memoirs of Diamond Jenness" Mercury Series, History Paper 55, Gatineau, QC: Canadian Museum of Civilization, pp. 193-202.</ref>