Editing Electrical engineering (section)

===Solid-state electronics ===
{{See also|History of electronic engineering|History of the transistor|Invention of the integrated circuit|MOSFET|Solid-state electronics}}
[[File:Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg|thumb|A replica of the first working [[transistor]], a [[point-contact transistor]]]]
[[File:MOSFET Structure.png|thumb|[[Metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor]] (MOSFET), the basic building block of modern [[electronics]]]]

The first working [[transistor]] was a [[point-contact transistor]] invented by [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Houser Brattain]] while working under [[William Shockley]] at the [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] (BTL) in 1947.<ref>{{cite web |title=1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=10 August 2019}}</ref> They then invented the [[bipolar junction transistor]] in 1948.<ref>{{cite web |title=1948: Conception of the Junction Transistor |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/conception-of-the-junction-transistor/ |website=The Silicon Engine |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=8 October 2019}}</ref> While early [[junction transistor]]s were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a [[mass-production]] basis,<ref name="Moskowitz">{{cite book |last1=Moskowitz |first1=Sanford L. |title=Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century |date=2016 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9780470508923 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168}}</ref> they opened the door for more compact devices.<ref>{{cite web | title = Electronics Timeline | work = Greatest Engineering Achievements of the Twentieth Century | url = http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=3956 | access-date =18 January 2006 }}</ref>

The first [[integrated circuit]]s were the [[hybrid integrated circuit]] invented by [[Jack Kilby]] at [[Texas Instruments]] in 1958 and the monolithic integrated circuit chip invented by [[Robert Noyce]] at [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] in 1959.<ref name="Saxena140">{{cite book |last1=Saxena |first1=Arjun N. |title=Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts |date=2009 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |isbn=9789812814456 |page=140 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3lpDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA140}}</ref>

The [[MOSFET]] (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by [[Mohamed Atalla]] and [[Dawon Kahng]] at BTL in 1959.<ref name="computerhistory">{{cite journal|url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/|title=1960 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated|journal=The Silicon Engine|publisher=[[Computer History Museum]]}}</ref><ref name="computerhistory-transistor">{{cite web |title=Who Invented the Transistor? |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |date=4 December 2013 |access-date=20 July 2019}}</ref><ref name="triumph">{{cite web |title=Triumph of the MOS Transistor |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211028/q6fBEjf9WPw| archive-date=2021-10-28|website=YouTube |publisher=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=21 July 2019 |date=6 August 2010}}{{cbignore}}</ref> It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.<ref name="Moskowitz"/> It revolutionized the [[electronics industry]],<ref name="Chan">{{cite book |last1=Chan |first1=Yi-Jen |title=Studies of InAIAs/InGaAs and GaInP/GaAs heterostructure FET's for high speed applications |date=1992 |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sV4eAQAAMAAJ |page=1 |quote=The Si MOSFET has revolutionized the electronics industry and as a result impacts our daily lives in almost every conceivable way.}}</ref><ref name="Grant">{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Duncan Andrew |last2=Gowar |first2=John |title=Power MOSFETS: theory and applications |date=1989 |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |isbn=9780471828679 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZiZTAAAAMAAJ |quote=The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is the most commonly used active device in the very large-scale integration of digital integrated circuits (VLSI). During the 1970s these components revolutionized electronic signal processing, control systems and computers.}}</ref> becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.<ref name="computerhistory-transistor"/><ref name="Golio">{{cite book |last1=Golio |first1=Mike |last2=Golio |first2=Janet |title=RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies |date=2018 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9781420006728 |pages=18–2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MCj9jxSVQKIC&pg=SA18-PA2}}</ref><ref name="computerhistory2018">{{cite web |title=13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/13-sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-history/ |date=2 April 2018 |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=28 July 2019}}</ref>

The MOSFET made it possible to build [[very large-scale integration|high-density integrated circuit]] chips.<ref name="computerhistory-transistor"/> The earliest experimental MOS IC chip to be fabricated was built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at [[RCA Laboratories]] in 1962.<ref name="computerhistory-digital">{{cite web |title=Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race – CHM Revolution |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/digital-logic/12/279 |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref> MOS technology enabled [[Moore's law]], the [[transistor count|doubling of transistor]]s on an IC chip every two years, predicted by [[Gordon Moore]] in 1965.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Franco |first1=Jacopo |last2=Kaczer |first2=Ben |last3=Groeseneken |first3=Guido |title=Reliability of High Mobility SiGe Channel MOSFETs for Future CMOS Applications |date=2013 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9789400776630 |pages=1–2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PnrGBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1}}</ref> [[Silicon-gate]] MOS technology was developed by [[Federico Faggin]] at Fairchild in 1968.<ref>{{cite web |title=1968: Silicon Gate Technology Developed for ICs |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/silicon-gate-technology-developed-for-ics/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref> Since then, the MOSFET has been the basic building block of modern electronics.<ref name="triumph"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=McCluskey |first1=Matthew D. |last2=Haller |first2=Eugene E. |title=Dopants and Defects in Semiconductors |date=2012 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=9781439831533 |page=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fV3RBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA3}}</ref><ref name="nytimes.com">{{cite web|last1=Daniels|first1=Lee A.|date=28 May 1992|title=Dr. Dawon Kahng, 61, Inventor in Field of Solid-State Electronics|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/28/nyregion/dr-dawon-kahng-61-inventor-in-field-of-solid-state-electronics.html|access-date=1 April 2017|website=The New York Times}}</ref> The mass-production of silicon MOSFETs and MOS integrated circuit chips, along with continuous [[MOSFET scaling]] miniaturization at an exponential pace (as predicted by [[Moore's law]]), has since led to revolutionary changes in technology, economy, culture and thinking.<ref name="Feldman">{{cite book |last1=Feldman |first1=Leonard C. |author1-link=Leonard Feldman |chapter=Introduction |title=Fundamental Aspects of Silicon Oxidation |date=2001 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9783540416821 |pages=1–11 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sV4y2-mWGNIC&pg=PA1}}</ref>

The [[Apollo program]] which culminated in [[Moon landing|landing astronauts on the Moon]] with [[Apollo 11]] in 1969 was enabled by [[NASA]]'s adoption of advances in [[semiconductor]] [[electronic technology]], including MOSFETs in the [[Interplanetary Monitoring Platform]] (IMP)<ref>{{cite book |title=Interplanetary Monitoring Platform |date=29 August 1989 |publisher=[[NASA]] |pages=1, 11, 134 |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800012928.pdf |access-date=12 August 2019|last1=Butler |first1=P. M. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=H. D. |last2=Lokerson |first2=D. C. |title=The Evolution of IMP Spacecraft Mosfet Data Systems |journal=[[IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science]] |date=1971 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=233–236 |doi=10.1109/TNS.1971.4325871 |bibcode=1971ITNS...18..233W |issn=0018-9499}}</ref> and silicon integrated circuit chips in the [[Apollo Guidance Computer]] (AGC).<ref>{{cite web |title=Apollo Guidance Computer and the First Silicon Chips |url=https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/apollo-guidance-computer-and-first-silicon-chips |website=[[National Air and Space Museum]] |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=1 September 2019 |date=14 October 2015}}</ref>

The development of MOS integrated circuit technology in the 1960s led to the invention of the [[microprocessor]] in the early 1970s.<ref name="computerhistory1971">{{cite web |title=1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |access-date=22 July 2019}}</ref><ref name="Colinge2016">{{cite book|last1=Colinge|first1=Jean-Pierre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjUCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|title=Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension|last2=Greer|first2=James C.|date=2016|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781107052406|page=2}}</ref> The first single-chip microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]], released in 1971.<ref name="computerhistory1971"/>  The Intel 4004 was designed and realized by Federico Faggin at Intel with his silicon-gate MOS technology,<ref name="computerhistory1971"/> along with Intel's [[Marcian Hoff]] and [[Stanley Mazor]] and Busicom's Masatoshi Shima.<ref name="ieee">{{cite journal|doi=10.1109/MSSC.2008.930938|title = The Making of the First Microprocessor|year = 2009|last1 = Faggin|first1 = Federico|journal = IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine|volume = 1|pages = 8–21|s2cid = 46218043|doi-access = }}</ref> The microprocessor led to the development of [[microcomputer]]s and personal computers, and the [[microcomputer revolution]].