Editing First Serbian Uprising (section)

==Uprising against the Ottomans==
[[File:Praviteljstvujušči sovjet serbski.JPG|thumb|The seal of the Ruling Council ({{Lang|sr|Praviteljstvujušči sovjet}})|alt=|left]]
[[File:Battle of Mišar, Afanasij Scheloumoff.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Mišar]] (1806), by Afanasij Šeloumov|alt=]]
[[File:Pistols from First Serbian Uprising.jpg|thumb|Flintlock pistols from the First Serbian Uprising|alt=]]
[[File:Regular soldier 1809.jpg|thumb|Uniform and weapons of a Serbian regular soldier (1809–10)]]In 1805, the first major battle took place at [[Battle of Ivankovac|Ivankovac]], where the Serbs defeated the Sultan's army and forced it to retreat towards Niš. It was the first time that the Serbs defeated the Sultan's army and not a Muslim rebel force. In November of the same year, the fortress of Smederevo fell and became the capital of the rebellion.{{sfn | Jelavich | Cambridge University Press | Joint Committee of Eastern Europe | Joint Committee on Eastern Europe | 1983 | p=200}} The second major clash was the [[Battle of Mišar]] in 1806, where the rebels defeated an Ottoman army from Bosnia led by the [[Sipahi]] commander Suleiman-Pasa. The rebels also defeated [[Osman Pazvantoğlu]] and another Ottoman army sent from the southeast at Deligrad. Despite repeated efforts and the support of Ottoman commanders, including [[Ibrahim Bushati]] and [[Ali Pasha of Ioannina|Ali Pasha]]'s two sons, Muktar Pasha and [[Veli Pasha]], the Ottomans were consistently defeated. In December 1806, the rebels, led by [[Petar Dobrnjac]], captured Belgrade and gained control of the entire Pashalik. The rebels sent the Belgrade merchant [[Petar Ičko]] as their envoy to the Ottoman government in [[Constantinople]]. He succeeded in obtaining a favourable treaty named after him, the ''Ičko's Peace,''{{sfn | Petrovich | 1976 | p=98-100}} which granted a measure of Serbian autonomy. However, Serbian leaders rejected the treaty and may have poisoned Ičko for his dealings with the Ottomans.

In 1805, the Serbian rebels established a rudimentary government to administer the lands under Serbian control. The government was divided into the [[National Assembly of Serbia|Narodna Skupština]] (People's Assembly), the ''Praviteljstvujušči Sovjet'' (Ruling Council), and [[Karađorđe]] himself. The Ruling Council was established on the recommendation of Russian Foreign Minister Chartorisky and at the suggestion of some dukes, including Jakov and Matija Nenadović, Milan Obrenović, and Sima Marković.{{sfn|Janković|1955|p=18}} Their purpose was to check Karađorđe's powers. Boža Grujović, the first secretary, and Matija Nenadović, the first president, envisioned the Council as the government of the new Serbian state.{{sfn|Čubrilović|1982|p=65}} The revolutionary government was responsible for organizing and supervising various aspects of government, including administration, economy, army supply, law and order, justice, and foreign policy.{{sfn|Čubrilović|1982|p=65}} In addition to abolishing forced labour and reducing taxes, they also abolished all [[ziamet|feudal obligations]] in 1806, emancipating peasants and serfs and marking a major social break with the past. The poll tax on non-Muslims ([[jizya]]) was also abolished.

The [[Battle of Deligrad]] in December 1806 was a decisive victory for the Serbs, which boosted the morale of the outnumbered rebels. To avoid total defeat, Ibrahim Pasha negotiated a six-week armistice with Karađorđe. By 1807, the demands for self-government within the Ottoman Empire had evolved into a war of independence, supported by the Russian Empire. Combining patriarchal peasant democracy with modern national aspirations, the Serbian Revolution attracted thousands of volunteers among Serbs from across the [[Balkans]] and Central Europe. It eventually became a symbol of the nation-building process in the Balkans and provoked unrest among Christians in both [[Ottoman Greece|Greece]] and [[Ottoman Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]. After a successful siege with 25,000 men in late 1806, Karađorđe proclaimed Belgrade the capital of Serbia on 8 January 1807, after the surrender of the remaining fortifications on St. Stephen's Day.{{sfn | Srđan Rudić | Belgrade 1521–1867 | The Institute of History | Yunus Emre Enstitüsü | 2018 | p=299}} The Serbian efforts were supported by the [[Imperial Russian Army]], which had established itself in Wallachia during the parallel Russo-Turkish War. This allowed the Serbian rebels to concentrate on the [[Timok Valley]], deep in the Sanjak of Vidin. A local rebel named [[Hajduk Veljko]] pledged his allegiance to Karađorđe.{{sfn|Trâpcea|1942|pp=270–277}}

Earlier rebellions against the Ottoman Turks were suppressed with great violence and repression.{{sfn | Mojzes | 2011 | p=10}} In February 1804, the Janissaries executed seventy-two Serbs and displayed their heads on the citadel of Belgrade. These actions led to equally brutal reprisals when the situation was reversed.{{sfn | Berend | 2005 | p=123}} The liberation of Belgrade was followed by a massacre of Turks.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Washburn |first1=Dennis |last2=Reinhart |first2=Kevin |title=Converting Cultures: Religion, Ideology and Transformations of Modernity |date=2007 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789047420330 |page=88 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8eSvCQAAQBAJ&q=Serbian+Christmas+Eve+around+1702&pg=PA87 |language=en}}</ref> The event was described by the Serbian historian [[Stojan Novaković|Stojan Novakovic]] as a "thorough cleansing of the Turks".<ref>{{cite book |title=Sudanow |date=1994 |publisher=Ministry of Culture and Information |page=20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9vgPAQAAMAAJ&q=annihilation |language=en}}</ref> After the Serbs finally stormed the fortress of Belgrade, Archbishop Leontii reported that the commander was killed "as well as all other Muslim inhabitants"; Turkish women and children were baptized.{{sfn | Berend | 2005 | p=123}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vovchenko |first1=Denis |title=Containing Balkan Nationalism: Imperial Russia and Ottoman Christians, 1856–1914 |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190276676 |page=299 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=und9DAAAQBAJ&q=massacre+of+turks+1807+belgrade&pg=PA299 |access-date=4 November 2019 |language=en}}</ref> The slaughter was accompanied by widespread destruction of Turkish and Muslim property and mosques.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lebel |first1=G'eni |title=Until "the Final Solution": The Jews in Belgrade 1521 – 1942 |date=2007 |publisher=Avotaynu |isbn=9781886223332 |page=70 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OhEuAQAAIAAJ&q=turks |access-date=4 November 2019 |language=en}}</ref> A significant portion of those killed were not of actual Turkish descent, but were local Slavs who had converted to Islam over the centuries.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} The massacre sparked a debate within the rebel faction. The older generation of rebels viewed the massacre as a sin, but the prevailing principle was the removal of all Muslims.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Aleksov |first1=Bojan |author-link1=Adamant and Treacherous |editor1-last=Washburn |editor1-first=Dennis |editor2-last=Reinhart |editor2-first=Kevin |title=Converting Cultures: Religion, Ideology, and Transformations of Modernity |date=2007 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-9004158221 |page=88 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcvKXwjmxUcC&pg=PA88}}</ref>

In 1808, Sultan Selim was executed by [[Mustafa IV]], who was subsequently deposed by [[Mahmud II]]. During [[Ottoman coups of 1807–08|this political crisis]], the Ottomans were willing to offer significant autonomy to the Serbs. However, the talks did not lead to an agreement between the two parties, as they could not agree on the exact borders of Serbia.{{sfn|Jelavich|1983|p=201}} Karađorđe's 1809 proclamation in the capital, [[Belgrade]], is considered the culmination of the first phase. The proclamation called for national unity and invoked [[History of the Serbs|Serbian history]] to call for the establishment of religious freedom and a written [[rule of law]]. It also urged Serbs to stop paying taxes to the Porte, which were considered discriminatory on the basis of religious affiliation. Karađorđe declared himself the hereditary supreme leader of Serbia but agreed to cooperate with the Governing Council, which also served as the supreme court. During the Ottoman-Russian War of 1809, Karađorđe was initially willing to support Russia, but their cooperation proved ineffective. Although Karađorđe launched a successful offensive at [[Novi Pazar]], Serbian forces were later defeated at the [[Battle of Čegar]].{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|1977|p=34}}[[File:Serbia1809.png|thumb|Serbia in 1809 under Karađorđe's rule|alt=]]In March 1809, [[Hursid Pasha|Hurşid Paşa]] was sent to the Sanjak of Smederevo to suppress the rebellion. The Ottoman force was composed of soldiers from various nearby pashaliks, mostly from Bosnia and [[Ottoman Albania|Albania]] ([[Pashalik of Scutari|Scutari]], [[Pashalik of Yanina|Yanina]]), including soldiers such as [[Samson Cerfberr of Medelsheim]], [[Osman Gradaščević]], and [[Mustafa Reshiti|Reshiti Bushati]]. On 19 May 1809, a large Ottoman force attacked 3,000 rebels led by commander [[Stevan Sinđelić]] on the hill of [[Čegar]], near the town of [[Niš]]. Due to the lack of coordination between the commanders, the reinforcement of other detachments failed. Despite their numerical superiority, the Ottoman forces lost thousands of men in numerous attacks on the Serbian positions. Eventually, the rebels were overwhelmed, and their positions were overrun. To prevent his men from being captured and [[impalement|impaled]], Sinđelić fired into the [[gun powder|gunpowder]] magazine of his entrenchment, causing an explosion that killed all the rebels and Ottoman troops in the vicinity. Afterwards, Hurshid Pasha ordered the construction of a tower made from the skulls of Serbian revolutionaries. The resulting [[Skull Tower]] stands ten feet tall and contains 952 Serbian skulls embedded in 14 rows on all four sides.

In July 1810, Russian troops arrived in Serbia for the second time. This time they provided military cooperation by sending weapons, ammunition and medical supplies. Marshal [[Mikhail Kutuzov]] also participated in planning joint actions. Russian support raised hopes of a Serbian victory.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|1977|p=34}} In August 1809, an Ottoman army marched on Belgrade, causing a mass exodus of people across the Danube. Among them was the Russian agent Radofinikin.{{sfn|Jelavich|1983|p=201}} Faced with the impending disaster, Karađorđe sought help from the [[Habsburgs]] and [[Napoleon]], but to no avail.{{sfn|Jelavich|1983|p=201}} At this point, the Serbian rebels shifted to a defensive strategy, focusing on holding their territories rather than making further gains.{{sfn|Jelavich|1983|p=201}}{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|1977|p=34}} Meanwhile, Russia, preoccupied with [[French invasion of Russia|a French invasion]], prioritized signing a final peace treaty and acted against Serbia's interests.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|1977|p=34}} In particular, the Serbs were not informed of the negotiations and only learned of the final terms from the Ottomans.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|1977|p=34}} This second Russian retreat occurred at the height of Karađorđe's power and the rise of Serbian expectations.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|1977|p=34}} The [[Treaty of Bucharest (1812)|Treaty of Bucharest]], signed in May 1812, contained Article 8, which dealt with the Serbs. According to the treaty, Serbian fortifications were to be destroyed unless they were of value to the Ottomans. Pre-1804, Ottoman installations were to be reoccupied and garrisoned by Ottoman troops. In return, the Porte promised a general amnesty and certain autonomous rights. The Serbs were granted control over the administration of their own affairs and the collection and payment of a fixed tribute.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|1977|p=35}} The reaction in Serbia was strong, with particular concern over the reoccupation of fortresses and towns and the expectation of feared reprisals.{{sfn|Jelavich|Jelavich|1977|p=35}}[[File:Serbia1813.png|thumb|Serbia in 1813, before the Ottoman reconquest]]During the rebellion, some of the leaders abused their privileges for personal gain. Disagreements arose between Karađorđe and other leaders as Karađorđe sought absolute power while his dukes sought to limit it. After retaking Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire took advantage of the Russian retreat to reconquer Serbia in 1813. As part of this effort, Wallachia was also recaptured and secured by the Ottomans under the loyalist Phanariote [[John Caradja]], along with its [[Great Banship of Craiova|Great Banship]] ([[Oltenia]]). In July 1813, an Ottoman–Wallachian force, including "several hundreds of Caradja's Romanians" arriving in through Oltenia, moved up the Timok River and killed Veljko at [[Negotin]].{{sfn|Trâpcea|1942|pp=277–278}} The Ottoman forces burned villages along the main invasion routes, massacred or displaced their inhabitants, and enslaved many women and children. Karađorđe and other rebel leaders fled the country, and the exiles scattered throughout the [[Austrian Empire]], Wallachia, and Russia.<ref name="staff.lib.msu.edu">{{Cite web|url=http://staff.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/lecture5.html|title = The Serbian Revolution and the Serbian State}}</ref>