Editing Forced displacement (section)

==Causes and examples==
Bogumil Terminski distinguishes two general categories of displacement:

* Displacement of risk: mostly conflict-induced displacement, deportations and disaster-induced displacement.
* Displacement of adaptation: associated with voluntary migration, development-induced displacement and environmentally-induced displacement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Risks and rights : the causes, consequences, and challenges of development-induced displacement|last=Robinson, W. Courtland|date=2003|publisher=The Brookings Institution|oclc=474499753}}</ref>

=== Natural causes ===
Forced displacement may directly result from [[natural disaster]]s and indirectly from the subsequent impact on [[infrastructure]], food and water access, and local/regional economies. Displacement may be temporary or permanent, depending on the scope of the disaster and the area's recovery capabilities. [[Climate change]] is increasing the frequency of major natural disasters, possibly placing a greater number of populations in situations of forced displacement.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayawardhan|first=Shweta|date=2017|title=Vulnerability and Climate Change Induced Human Displacement|journal=Consilience|issue=17|pages=103–142|issn=1948-3074|jstor=26188784}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Citation|last=McAdam|first=Jane|title=Climate Change, Forced Migration, and International Law|date=2012-02-01|pages=237–266|chapter=Overarching Normative Principles|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199587087.003.0010|isbn=9780199587087|author-link=Jane McAdam}}</ref> Also [[crop failure]]s due to [[blight]] and/or [[Pest (organism)|pests]] fall within this category by affecting people's access to food. Additionally, the term [[environmental refugee]] represents people who are forced to leave their traditional habitat because of environmental factors which negatively impact their livelihood, or even environmental disruption i.e. biological, physical or chemical change in ecosystem.<ref name=":22">Terminski, Bogumil. Environmentally-Induced Displacement: Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges, University de Liege, 2012</ref> Migration can also occur as a result of slow-onset [[climate change]], such as [[desertification]] or [[sea-level rise]], of deforestation or [[land degradation]].

==== Examples of forced displacement caused by natural disasters ====

[[File:Damage in Nias from the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. Indonesia 2005. Photo- AusAID (10691224953).jpg|thumb|Damage to residence in Nias, Indonesia from the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami]]
* [[2024 LA Fires]]: LA Fires displacing approximately 200,000 people.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-relief-news-stories/california-fires-facts-faqs-how-to-help | title=California fires: Facts, FAQs, and how to help | date=3 February 2025 }}</ref>
* [[2004 Indian Ocean tsunami]]: Resulting from a 9.1 earthquake off the coast of North Sumatra, the Indian Ocean Tsunami claimed over 227,898 lives, heavily damaging coastlines throughout the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/indo_1204.html|publisher=NOAA Center for Tsunami Research |title=Tsunami Event - December 26, 2004 The Indian Ocean Tsunami|access-date=2019-10-23}}</ref> As a result, over 1.7 million people were displaced, mostly from Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Internationally displaced people|url=https://www2.gwu.edu/~sigur/assets/docs/scap/SCAP25-Tsunami2.pdf|access-date=2022-01-03}}</ref>
*[[Hurricane Katrina]] (2005): Striking New Orleans, Louisiana, in late August 2005, Hurricane Katrina inflicted approximately US$125 billion in damages, standing as one of the costliest storms in United States history.<ref>Blake, Eric S, and Landsea, Christopher W. (August 2011). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110929015606/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/nws-nhc-6.pdf https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/nws-nhc-6.pdf "The Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United  States Tropical Cyclones from 1851 to 2010 (And Other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts)"].{{Dead link|date=January 2022}} ''NOAA Technical Memorandum''.</ref> As a result of the damage inflicted by Katrina, over one million people were internally displaced. One month after the disaster, over 600,000 remained displaced. Immediately following the disaster, New Orleans lost approximately half of its population, with many residents displaced to cities such as Houston, Dallas, Baton Rouge, and Atlanta. According to numerous studies, displacement disproportionally impacted Louisiana's poorer populations, specifically African Americans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Camprubí|first=Alejandra Torres|date=November 2013|title=Climate Change, Forced Displacement and International Law, by Jane McAdam, published by Oxford University Press, 2012, 344pp., £74.00, hardback |type=book review|journal=Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law|volume=22|issue=3|pages=373–375|doi=10.1111/reel.12036_2|bibcode=2013RECIE..22..373C }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sastry|first1=Narayan|last2=Gregory|first2=Jesse|date=2014-06-01|title=The Location of Displaced New Orleans Residents in the Year After Hurricane Katrina|journal=Demography|volume=51|issue=3|pages=753–775|doi=10.1007/s13524-014-0284-y|issn=1533-7790|pmc=4048822|pmid=24599750}}</ref>
*[[2011 East Africa drought]]: Failed rains in Somalia, Kenya, and Ethiopia led to high livestock and crop losses, driving majority pastoralist populations to surrounding areas in search of accessible food and water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia|url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf|access-date=2022-01-03}}</ref> In addition to seeking food and water, local populations' migration was motivated by an inability to maintain traditional lifestyles.<ref name=":13"/> According to researchers,{{which|date=October 2023}} although partly influenced by local armed conflict, the East African drought stands as an example of climate change impacts.

=== Human-made causes ===
Human-made displacement describes forced displacement caused by political entities, criminal organizations, conflicts, human-made environmental disasters, development, etc. Although impacts of natural disasters and blights/pests may be exacerbated by human mismanagement, human-made causes refer specifically to those initiated by humans. According to [[UNESCO]], armed conflict stands as the most common cause behind forced displacement, reinforced by regional studies citing political and armed conflict as the largest attributing factors to migrant outflows from Latin America, Africa, and Asia.<ref name=":62"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=NOW WHAT? THE INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE TO INTERNAL DISPLACEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO|url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/The-International-Response-to-Internal-Displacement-in-the-DRC-December-2014.pdf|access-date=2022-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Fiddian-Qasmiyeh|first1=Elena|title=Forced Migration in South-East Asia and East Asia|date=2014-06-01|work=The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199652433|last2=Loescher|first2=Gil|last3=Long|first3=Katy|last4=Sigona|first4=Nando|last5=McConnahie|first5=Kirsten|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199652433.013.0048}}</ref><ref name=":42">Salazar, Luz María, and José Antonio Álvarez Lobato. 2018. “Violencia y Desplazamientos Forzados En México.” Revista Cuicuilco 25 (73): 19–37.</ref>

==== Examples of forced displacement caused by criminal activity ====

* Displacement in [[Mexico]] due to [[Drug cartel|cartel]] violence: Throughout Mexico, drug cartel, paramilitary, and self-defense group violence drives internal and external displacement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.refugeesinternational.org/reports/2015/10/13/mexicos-unseen-victims|title=Mexico's Unseen Victims|website=Refugees International|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref><ref name=":42"/> According to a comprehensive, mixed methodology study by Salazar and Álvarez Lobato, families fled their homes as a means of survival, hoping to escape homicide, extortion, and potential kidnapping. Using a collection of available data and existing studies, the total number of displaced persons between 2006 and 2012 was approximately 740 thousands.<ref name=":42"/>
*Displacement in [[Central America]] due to cartel/gang violence: A major factor behind US immigrant crises in the early 21st century (such as the [[2014 American immigration crisis|2014 immigrant crisis]]), rampant gang violence in the [[Northern Triangle of Central America|Northern Triangle]], combined with corruption and low economic opportunities, has forced many to flee their country in pursuit of stability and greater opportunity. Homicide rates in countries such as [[El Salvador]] and [[Honduras]] reached some of the highest in the world, with El Salvador peaking at [[List of countries by intentional homicide rate|103 homicides per 100,000 people]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Cantor|first=David James|date=2016|title=As deadly as armed conflict? Gang violence and forced displacement in the Northern Triangle of Central America|journal=Agenda Internacional|volume=23|issue=34|pages=77–97|doi=10.18800/agenda.201601.003|doi-access=free}}</ref> Contributing factors include extortion, territorial disputes, and forced gang recruitment, resulting in some estimates of approximately 500,000 people displaced annually.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":72"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jiménez|first=Everardo Víctor|date=2017-01-18|title=La violencia en el Triángulo Norte de Centroamérica: una realidad que genera desplazamiento|journal=Papel Político|volume=21|issue=1|pages=167|doi=10.11144/javeriana.papo21-1.vtnc|issn=2145-0617|doi-access=free}}</ref>
*Displacement in [[Colombia]] due to conflict and drug-related violence: According to researchers Mojica and Eugenia, Medellín, Colombia around 2013 exemplified crime and violence-induced forced displacement, standing as one of the most popular destinations for [[IDPs]] while also producing IDPs of its own. Rural citizens fled from organized criminal violence, with the majority pointing to direct threats as the main driving force, settling in Medellín in pursuit of safety and greater opportunity. Within Medellín, various armed groups battled for territorial control, forcing perceived opponents from their homes and pressuring residents to abandon their livelihoods, among other methods. All in all, criminal violence forced Colombians to abandon their possessions, way of life, and social ties in pursuit of safety.<ref>Sánchez Mojica, Beatriz Eugenia. 2013. “A City Torn Apart: Forced Displacement in Medellín, Colombia.” International Law, no. 22 (January): 179–210.</ref>

==== Examples of forced displacement caused by political conflict ====
* [[1949–1956 Palestinian exodus]]<ref>Ghada Karmi (Editor), Eugene Cotran (Editor) (28 Jan 1999) "The Palestinian Exodus: 1948-1998" Ithaca Press {{ISBN|0-86372-244-X}}</ref>
* [[Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)|1950-1951 exodus of Turks from Bulgaria]]: according to some, caused because the Turkish support of the USA during the [[Korean War]]. Communist ideologies, Islamophobia and Anti-Turkism also played a role.
*[[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world]]
* [[Vietnam War]]: Throughout the Vietnam War and in the years preceding it, many populations were forced out of Vietnam and the surrounding countries as a result of armed conflict and/or persecution by their governments, such as the [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]]. This event is referred to as the [[Indochina refugee crisis]], with millions displaced across Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wain|first=Barry|date=1979|title=The Indochina Refugee Crisis|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=58|issue=1|pages=160–180|doi=10.2307/20040344|issn=0015-7120|jstor=20040344}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hein|first=Jeremy|date=1993-08-01|title=Refugees, Immigrants, and the State|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|volume=19|issue=1|pages=43–59|doi=10.1146/annurev.so.19.080193.000355|issn=0360-0572}}</ref>
*[[Salvadoran Civil War]]: Throughout and after the 12-year conflict between the Salvadoran government and the [[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front|FMLN]], Salvadorans faced forced displacement as a result of combat, persecution, and deteriorating quality of life/access to socioeconomic opportunities. Overall, one in four Salvadorans were internally and externally displaced (over one million people).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Truth Commission: El Salvador|url=https://www.usip.org/publications/1992/07/truth-commission-el-salvador|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223015049/https://www.usip.org/publications/1992/07/truth-commission-el-salvador|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 23, 2017|access-date=2022-01-03|website=United States Institute of Peace|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Annual Report 1989–1990 – Table of Contents|url=http://www.cidh.org/annualrep/89.90eng/TOC.htm|access-date=2022-01-03|publisher=[[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]] }}</ref>
* [[2021 Myanmar coup d'état]]: Since the coup d’état of 1 February 2021, the Burmese military's ascendancy into power has resulted in widespread chaos and violence, aggravated by the refusal of large sections of the public to accept a military regime given the country's experiences during the second half of the 20th and early years of the 21st century. As a result, many in the public sector have initiated strikes,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-04-09|title=Myanmar on the Brink of State Failure|url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/myanmar-brink-state-failure|access-date=2022-01-03|website=Crisis Group|language=en}}</ref> and the country has seen elevated levels of forced displacement, both internally displaced persons (IDPs) (208,000 since 1 February 2021) and refugees fleeing abroad (an estimated 22,000 since 1 February 2021).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Myanmar Emergency Update (as of 15 September 2021) – Myanmar|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/myanmar-emergency-update-15-september-2021|access-date=2022-01-03|website=ReliefWeb|date=21 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref> The particular political conflict causing the displacement has been flagged as symptomatic of that of a state on the brink of collapse. Two key indicators of this that have been highlighted are firstly, that levels of security have been severely reduced to the point where citizens are no longer protected from violence by the state; and secondly, goods and services are not being reliably supplied to citizens either by the ousted government or by the new military leadership, primarily as a result of the instability created and the strikes triggered.<ref>Cojanu, V. and Popescu, A. I. (2007). "Analysis of Failed States: Some Problems of Definition and Measurement". ''The Romanian Economic Journal'' 25. pp.113–132.</ref> These internal problems are further reflected by the withdrawal of international recognition by both governmental and non-governmental bodies.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-06-19|title=Myanmar coup: UN calls for arms embargo against military|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-57536032|access-date=2022-01-03}}</ref>
*[[Gaza Strip evacuations]], since the start of the [[Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip]] on 27 October 2023, over   85% of the population has been displaced.<ref>{{Cite web |last=International |first=Miyamoto |date=2024-04-30 |title=Structural Damage Assessment & Shelter Needs in Gaza Strip |url=https://miyamotointernational.com/report-remote-sensing-structural-damage-assessment-to-determine-probable-shelter-needs-in-the-gaza-strip/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Examples of forced displacement caused by human-made environmental disasters ====

* [[2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires]]: Although human-made fires are a normal part of Amazonian agriculture, the 2019 dry season saw an internationally noted increase in their rate of occurrence. The rapidly spreading fires, combined with efforts from agricultural and logging companies, has forced Brazil's indigenous populations off their native lands.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theintercept.com/2019/07/06/brazil-amazon-rainforest-indigenous-conservation-agribusiness-ranching/|title=Rainforest on Fire: On the Front Lines of Bolsonaro's War on the Amazon, Brazil's Forest Communities Fight Against Climate Catastrophe|last=Zaitchik|first=Alexander|date=2019-07-06|website=The Intercept|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/08/amazon-fires-indigenous-lands/596908/|title=The Land Battle Behind the Fires in the Amazon|last=Sims|first=Shannon|date=2019-08-27|website=The Atlantic|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref>
*[[Chernobyl disaster]]: A nuclear meltdown on April 26, 1986, near [[Pripyat|Pripyat, Ukraine]] contaminated the city and surrounding areas with harmful levels of radiation, forcing the displacement of over 100,000 people.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nuclear Disasters & The Built Environment : a Report to the Royal Institute of British Architects.|last=Steadman, Philip.|date=2014|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=9781483106229|oclc=1040599457}}</ref>
* [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]]: Between 1845 and 1849, potato blight, exacerbated by policy decisions and mismanagement by the U.K. government, caused millions of Irish people, largely potato-dependent tenant farmers, to starve or eventually flee the country. Over one million perished from subsequent famine and disease, and another million fled the country, reducing the overall Irish population by at least a quarter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kelly|first1=M.|last2=Fotheringham|first2=A. Stewart|date=2011-07-01|title=The online atlas of Irish population change 1841–2002: A new resource for analysing national trends and local variations in Irish population dynamics|journal=Irish Geography|volume=44|issue=2–3|pages=215–244|doi=10.1080/00750778.2011.664806|issn=0075-0778}}</ref>

==== Other human-made displacement ====
* [[Human trafficking]]/[[Human smuggling|smuggling]]: Migrants displaced through deception or coercion with purpose of their exploitation fall under this category. Due to its clandestine nature, the data on such type of forced migration are limited. A disparity also exists between the data for male trafficking (such as for labor in agriculture, construction etc.) and female trafficking (such as for sex work or domestic service), with more data available for males. The [[International Labour Organization]] considers trafficking an offense against labor protection, denying companies from leveraging migrants as a labor resource. ILO's Multilateral Framework includes principle no. 11, recommending that "Governments should formulate and implement, in consultation with the social partners, measures to prevent abusive practices, migrant smuggling and people trafficking; they should also work towards preventing irregular labor migration."[[File:Umschlagplatz_in_Warsaw_August_1942.jpg|thumb|Jews forcibly displaced by the Nazi regime during Germany's WWII occupation of Poland, loaded onto trains for transport to concentration camps.]]
*[[Slavery]]: Historically, [[slavery]] has led to the displacement of individuals for [[Forced labour|forced labor]], with the [[Middle Passage]] of the 15th through 19th century [[Atlantic slave trade]] standing as a notable example. Of the 20 million Africans captured for the trade, half died in their forced march to the African coast, and another ten to twenty percent died on slave ships carrying them from Africa to the Americas.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1p277.html|title=The Middle Passage|author=PBS-WGBH|date=1999|work=Africans in America|access-date=7 November 2016}}</ref>
*[[Ethnic cleansing]]: The systematic removal of ethnic or religious groups from a territory with the intent of making it ethnically homogeneous. Examples include the Catholic removal of [[Salzburg Protestants]], the removal of Jewish people during the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]], and the deportation of North American indigenous peoples (e.g., [[Trail of Tears]]). 
* Suppressing political opposition: For example, the [[forced settlements in the Soviet Union]] and [[population transfer in the Soviet Union]] including [[deportation of the Crimean Tatars]], [[deportation of the Chechens and Ingush]], [[deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union]], [[deportation of the Soviet Greeks]], and [[deportations of the Ingrian Finns]]
* Aligning ethnic composition with artificial political border: For example [[flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)]], [[Polish population transfers (1944–1946)]], and [[Operation Vistula]]
* [[Colonization]]: For example, the British governments transportation of [[Convicts in Australia]], [[American Colonization Society]] and others' attempt to create a country for [[African Americans]] in [[Africa]] as [[Liberia]], Japanese settlers in [[Manchukuo]] following [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria]], and the Chinese military settlement of [[Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps]] in [[Xinjiang]].