Editing Gentrification (section)

==Effects==
{{Globalize|section|date=May 2021}}

===Crime===
According to a 2020 [[systematic review]] of existing research, gentrification in the United States has led to a short-term reduction in crime in gentrifying neighborhoods. However, it noted that there is little evidence for more long-term impacts and that gentrification in some cases widens crime-related disparities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=MacDonald |first1=John M. |last2=Stokes |first2=Robert J. |title=Gentrification, Land Use, and Crime |journal=Annual Review of Criminology |date=13 January 2020 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=121–138 |doi=10.1146/annurev-criminol-011419-041505 |s2cid=210778419 }}</ref>

===Displacement===
{{unbalanced|date=September 2024|section|small=yes}}
[[File:Mexico City's Roma neighborhood gentrification 2016.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|A building in [[Mexico City]] left without repainting, to encourage residents to move out, beside an [[High-tech architecture|ultra-modern]] [[loft]] tower]]
{{see also|Community displacement}}

Displacement is often seen as a key effect of gentrification, although evidence is mixed as to whether gentrification leads to displacement (or even reduces displacement) and under which circumstances.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Florida |first=Richard |date=2015-09-08 |title=The Complex Connection Between Gentrification and Displacement |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-09-08/the-complex-relationship-between-gentrification-and-displacement |work=Bloomberg.com |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Newman|Wyly|2006|p=23}} In 2005, ''[[USA Today]]'' claimed that gentrification is a "boost for everyone" based on the impact of some recent studies and that displacement that arises is minimal, or caused by other factors. Some scholars have disputed these assertions, arguing that such studies distort facts and used limited datasets.{{sfn|Newman|Wyly|2006|p=24}} In 2002, economist Jacob Vigdor wrote, "Overall, existing literature has failed to convincingly demonstrate that rates of involuntary displacement are higher in gentrifying neighborhoods."<ref name=":5" />

A 2018 study found evidence that gentrification displaces renters, but not homeowners.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Isaac William |last2=Beck |first2=Kevin |title=Gentrification, Property Tax Limitation, and Displacement |journal=Urban Affairs Review |date=January 2018 |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=33–73 |doi=10.1177/1078087416666959 |s2cid=157152566 }}</ref> The displacement of low-income rental residents is commonly referenced as a negative aspect of gentrification by its opponents.<ref>{{harvnb|Quastel |2009}}{{pages needed|date=April 2019}}; {{harvnb|Murdie |Teixeira |2009}}{{pages needed|date=April 2019}}; {{harvnb|Maloutas |2011}}{{pages needed|date=April 2019}};  {{harvnb|Hackworth|2002}}{{pages needed|date=April 2019}}; {{harvnb|Dobson |2007 }}{{pages needed|date=April 2019}}; {{harvnb|Belanger |2012}}{{pages needed|date=April 2019}}</ref> A 2022 study found evidence that gentrification leads to greater residential mobility.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Hyojung |last2=Perkins |first2=Kristin L |date=2022 |title=The Geography of Gentrification and Residential Mobility |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sf/soac086 |journal=Social Forces |volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=1856–1887 |doi=10.1093/sf/soac086 |issn=0037-7732|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In the United States, a 2023 study by Princeton University sociologists found that "eviction rates decreased more in gentrifying neighborhoods than in comparable low-income neighborhoods."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hepburn |first1=Peter |last2=Louis |first2=Renee |last3=Desmond |first3=Matthew |date=2024 |title=Beyond Gentrification: Housing Loss, Poverty, and the Geography of Displacement |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soad123 |journal=Social Forces|volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=880–901 |doi=10.1093/sf/soad123 |pmid=38229933 |pmc=10789166 }}</ref> A 2016 study found "that vulnerable residents, those with low credit scores and without mortgages, are generally no more likely to move from gentrifying neighborhoods compared with their counterparts in nongentrifying neighborhoods."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ding |first1=Lei |last2=Hwang |first2=Jackelyn |last3=Divringi |first3=Eileen |title=Gentrification and residential mobility in Philadelphia |journal=Regional Science and Urban Economics |date=November 2016 |volume=61 |pages=38–51 |doi=10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2016.09.004 |pmid=28579662 |pmc=5450830 }}</ref> A 2017 study by sociology professor [[Matthew Desmond]], who runs Princeton University's Eviction Lab, "found no evidence that renters residing in gentrifying or in racially- and economically-integrated neighborhoods had a higher likelihood of eviction."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Desmond |first1=Matthew |last2=Gershenson |first2=Carl |date=2017 |title=Who gets evicted? Assessing individual, neighborhood, and network factors |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0049089X16300977 |journal=Social Science Research |volume=62 |pages=362–377 |doi=10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.08.017 |pmid=28126112 |issn=0049-089X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":4" /> A 2020 study which followed children from low-income families in New York found no evidence that gentrification was associated with changes in mobility rates. The study also found "that children who start out in a gentrifying area experience larger improvements in some aspects of their residential environment than their counterparts who start out in persistently low-socioeconomic status areas."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dragan |first1=Kacie |last2=Ellen |first2=Ingrid Gould |last3=Glied |first3=Sherry |date=2020 |title=Does gentrification displace poor children and their families? New evidence from medicaid data in New York City |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0166046219302194 |journal=Regional Science and Urban Economics |volume=83 |pages=103481 |doi=10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2019.103481 |issn=0166-0462|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A 2023 study by economists at the W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research and Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia found that the construction of new large apartment buildings in low-income neighborhoods lead to an influx of high-income households but also decrease rents in nearby units by increasing housing supply.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Asquith |first1=Brian J. |last2=Mast |first2=Evan |last3=Reed |first3=Davin |date=2023-03-03 |title=Local Effects of Large New Apartment Buildings in Low-Income Areas |url=https://direct.mit.edu/rest/article/105/2/359/100977/Local-Effects-of-Large-New-Apartment-Buildings-in |journal=The Review of Economics and Statistics |language=en |volume=105 |issue=2 |pages=359–375 |doi=10.1162/rest_a_01055 |issn=0034-6535|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In the United Kingdom, recent studies suggest that gentrification leads to ''exclusionary'' displacement &ndash; i.e. preventing low-income households from moving to an area due to high rent/home prices &ndash; but less so for ''direct'' displacement &ndash; forcing low-income households to move out of an area due to high rent/home prices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fransham |first=Mark |date=2020 |title=Neighbourhood gentrification, displacement, and poverty dynamics in post-recession England |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/psp.2327 |journal=Population, Space and Place |language=en |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=e2327 |doi=10.1002/psp.2327 |issn=1544-8452}}</ref> Often, a lack of low-level migration data limits displacement-based research.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reades |first1=Jonathan |last2=Lees |first2=Loretta |last3=Hubbard |first3=Phil |last4=Lansley |first4=Guy |date=2023-06-01 |title=Quantifying state-led gentrification in London: Using linked consumer and administrative records to trace displacement from council estates |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0308518X221135610 |journal=Environment and Planning A |language=EN |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=810–827 |doi=10.1177/0308518X221135610 |issn=0308-518X}}</ref>

===Social changes===
[[File:La_Rambla_(Barcelona,_2023).jpg|thumb|Local neighbor protesting against tourists in La Rambla (Barcelona, Spain)]]
Many of the social effects of gentrification have been based on extensive theories about how [[socioeconomic status]] of an individual's neighborhood will shape one's behavior and future. These studies have prompted "social mix policies" to be widely adopted by governments to promote the process and its positive effects, such as lessening the strain on public resources that are associated with de-concentrating poverty. However, more specific research has shown that gentrification does not necessarily correlate with "social mixing", and that the effects of the new composition of a gentrified neighborhood can both weaken as well as strengthen community cohesion.<ref name="Freeman page needed">{{harvnb|Freeman|2006}}{{page needed|date=April 2019}}</ref>

Housing confers social status, and the changing norms that accompany gentrification translate to a changing social hierarchy.<ref name="Smith page needed"/> The process of gentrification mixes people of different socioeconomic strata, thereby congregating a variety of expectations and social norms. The change gentrification brings in class distinction also has been shown to contribute to residential [[Social polarization|polarization]] by income, education, household composition, and race.<ref name="Smith page needed"/> It conveys a social rise that brings new standards in consumption, particularly in the form of excess and superfluity, to the area that were not held by the pre-existing residents.<ref name="Smith page needed"/> These differing norms can lead to conflict, which potentially serves to divide changing communities.<ref name="Freeman page needed"/> Often this comes at a larger social cost to the original residents of the gentrified area whose displacement is met with little concern from the gentry or the government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goossens |first1=Cedric |last2=Oosterlynck |first2=Stijn |last3=Bradt |first3=Lieve |title=Livable streets? Green gentrification and the displacement of longtime residents in Ghent, Belgium |journal=Urban Geography |date=20 April 2020 |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=550–572 |doi=10.1080/02723638.2019.1686307|hdl=2268/308253 }}</ref> Clashes that result in increased police surveillance, for example, would more adversely affect young minorities who are also more likely to be the original residents of the area.<ref name="Freeman page needed"/>

There is also evidence to support that gentrification can strengthen and stabilize when there is a consensus about a community's objectives. Gentrifiers with an organized presence in deteriorated neighborhoods can demand and receive better resources.<ref name="Freeman page needed"/> A characteristic example is a combined community effort to win historic district designation for the neighborhood, a phenomenon that is often linked to gentrification activity.<ref name="Lees page needed"/> Gentry can exert a peer influence on neighbors to take action against crime, which can lead to even more price increases in changing neighborhoods when crime rates drop and optimism for the area's future climbs.<ref name="Lees page needed"/>

Some argue that gentrification is associated with the decline of distinctive local businesses and the rise of chains and franchises.<ref name="alkon">{{cite journal |last1=Alkon |first1=Alison Hope |date=May–June 2018 |title=Entrepreneurship As Activism? Resisting Gentrification in Oakland, California |journal=Revista de Administação de Empresas |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=279–90 |doi=10.1590/S0034-759020180308 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meltzer |first1=Rachel |date=2016 |title=Gentrification and Small Businesses: Threat or Opportunity? |journal=Cityscape |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=57–85 |id={{ProQuest|1856560399}}}}</ref>

Rehabilitation movements have been largely successful at restoring the plentiful supply of old and deteriorated housing that is readily available in inner cities. This rehabilitation can be seen as a superior alternative to expansion, for the location of the central city offers an intact [[infrastructure]] that should be taken advantage of: streets, public transportation, and other urban facilities.<ref name="Lees page needed" /> Furthermore, the changed perception of the central city that is encouraged by gentrification can be healthy for resource-deprived communities who have previously been largely ignored.<ref name="Lees page needed" /> Gentrifiers provide the political effectiveness needed to draw more government funding towards physical and social area improvements,<ref name="Murdie page needed">{{harvnb|Murdie|Teixeira|2009}}{{page needed|date=May 2019}}</ref> while improving the overall quality of life by providing a larger tax base.<ref name="Quastel page needed" />

Communities have strong ties to the history and culture of their neighborhood, and causing its dispersal can have detrimental costs.<ref name="CDC" />

===Economic shifts===
[[File:Arany János Street 19 - Október 6 Street 19, Gentrification in Budapest.jpg|thumb|Gentrification taking place in a [[Budapest]] apartment building]]
The economic changes that occur as a community goes through gentrification are often favorable for local governments. Affluent gentrifiers expand the local tax base as well as support local shops and businesses, a large part of why the process is frequently alluded to in urban policies. The decrease in vacancy rates and increase in property value that accompany the process can work to stabilize a previously struggling community, restoring interest in inner-city life as a residential option alongside the suburbs.<ref name="Lees page needed"/> These changes can create positive feedback as well, encouraging other forms of development of the area that promote general economic growth.

Home ownership is a significant variable when it comes to economic impacts of gentrification. People who own their homes are much more able to gain financial benefits of gentrification than those who rent their houses and can be displaced without much compensation.{{sfn|Freeman|2006|p=93–94}}

Economic pressure and market price changes relate to the speed of gentrification. English-speaking countries have a higher number of property owners and a higher mobility. German speaking countries provide a higher share of rented property and have a much stronger role of municipalities, cooperatives, guilds and unions offering low-price-housing. The effect is a lower speed of gentrification and a broader social mix. Gerhard Hard sees gentrification as a typical 1970s term with more visibility in public discourse than actual migration.<ref name="GH">{{cite book |first=Gerhard |last=Hard |chapter=Dimensionen geographischen Denkens |title=Osnabrücker Studien zur Geographie |publisher=V&R unipress |year=2003 |isbn=978-3-89971-105-9 |series=Aufsätze zur Theorie der Geographie |language=de}}</ref>

A 2017 study found that gentrification leads to job gains overall, with job losses in proximate locations but job gains further away.<ref name="auto">{{cite journal |last1=Meltzer |first1=Rachel |last2=Ghorbani |first2=Pooya |title=Does gentrification increase employment opportunities in low-income neighborhoods? |journal=Regional Science and Urban Economics |date=September 2017 |volume=66 |pages=52–73 |doi=10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2017.06.002 }}</ref> A 2014 study found that gentrification led to job gains in the gentrifying neighborhood.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lester |first1=T. William |last2=Hartley |first2=Daniel A. |title=The long term employment impacts of gentrification in the 1990s |journal=Regional Science and Urban Economics |date=March 2014 |volume=45 |pages=80–89 |doi=10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2014.01.003 |s2cid=153744304 |url=https://www.clevelandfed.org/newsroom-and-events/publications/working-papers/2013-working-papers/wp-1307-the-long-term-employment-impacts-of-gentrification-in-the-1990s.aspx }}</ref>

A 2016 study found that residents who stay in gentrifying neighborhoods go on to obtain higher credit scores whereas residents who leave gentrifying neighborhoods obtain lower credit scores.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ding |first1=Lei |last2=Hwang |first2=Jackelyn |title=The Consequences of Gentrification: A Focus on Residents' Financial Health in Philadelphia |journal=Cityscape |date=2016 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=27–56 |jstor=26328272 }}</ref>

===Education===
"School gentrification" is characterized by: (i) increased numbers of middle-class families; (ii) material and physical upgrades (e.g. new programs, educational resources, and infrastructural improvements); (iii) forms of exclusion and/or the marginalization of low-income students and families (e.g. in both enrollment and social relations); and (iv) changes in school culture and climate (e.g. traditions, expectations, and social dynamics).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Posey-Maddox |first1=Linn |last2=Kimelberg |first2=Shelley McDonough |last3=Cucchiara |first3=Maia |title=Middle-Class Parents and Urban Public Schools: Current Research and Future Directions: Middle-Class Parents and Urban Public Schools |journal=Sociology Compass |date=April 2014 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=446–456 |doi=10.1111/soc4.12148 }}</ref>

A 2024 study found that adding high-density mixed-income developments to low-income neighborhoods in London, United Kingdom, led to improved educational outcomes for the children who were already living in the neighborhood. The plausible mechanism for this effect is that incumbent students were exposed to more high-ability students.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neri |first=Lorenzo |date=2024 |title=Moving opportunities: The impact of mixed-income public housing regenerations on student achievement |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272723002359 |journal=Journal of Public Economics |volume=230 |doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2023.105053 |issn=0047-2727|hdl=10023/28948 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

In Chicago, among neighborhood public schools located in areas that did undergo gentrification, one study found that schools experience no aggregate academic benefit from the socioeconomic changes occurring around them,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keels |first1=Micere |last2=Burdick–Will |first2=Julia |last3=Keene |first3=Sara |title=The Effects of Gentrification on Neighborhood Public Schools |journal=City & Community |date=September 2013 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=238–259 |doi=10.1111/cico.12027 |s2cid=142557937 }}</ref> despite improvements in other public services such street repair, sanitation, policing, and firefighting. The lack of gentrification-related benefits to schools may be related to the finding that white gentrifiers often do not enroll their children in local neighborhood public schools.<ref name="Pearman2020">{{cite journal |last1=Pearman |first1=Francis A. |date=February 2020 |title=Gentrification, Geography, and the Declining Enrollment of Neighborhood Schools |journal=Urban Education |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=183–215 |doi=10.1177/0042085919884342 |s2cid=210278171}}</ref>

Programs and policies designed to attract gentrifying families to historically disinvested schools may have unintended negative consequences, including an unbalanced landscape of influence wherein the voices and priorities of more affluent parents are privileged over those of lower-income families.<ref>Cucchiara, M. (2013). Marketing Schools, Marketing Cities: Who wins and who loses when schools become urban amenities. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.</ref> In addition, rising enrollment of higher-income families in neighborhood schools can result in the political and cultural displacement of long-term residents in school decision-making processes and the loss of Title I funding.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Freidus |first1=Alexandra |title='A Great School Benefits Us All': Advantaged Parents and the Gentrification of an Urban Public School |journal=Urban Education |date=October 2019 |volume=54 |issue=8 |pages=1121–1148 |doi=10.1177/0042085916636656 |s2cid=147178285 }}</ref> Notably, the expansion of school choice (e.g., charter schools, magnet schools, open enrollment policies) have been found to significantly increase the likelihood that college-educated white households gentrify low-income communities of color.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pearman |first1=Francis A. |last2=Swain |first2=Walker A. |title=School Choice, Gentrification, and the Variable Significance of Racial Stratification in Urban Neighborhoods |journal=Sociology of Education |date=July 2017 |volume=90 |issue=3 |pages=213–235 |doi=10.1177/0038040717710494 |s2cid=149108889 }}</ref>

=== Health ===
A culmination of recent research suggests that gentrification has both detrimental and beneficial effects on health.<ref name="Schnake-Mahl2020">{{cite journal |last1=Schnake-Mahl |first1=Alina S. |last2=Jahn |first2=Jaquelyn L. |last3=Subramanian |first3=S.V. |last4=Waters |first4=Mary C. |last5=Arcaya |first5=Mariana |title=Gentrification, Neighborhood Change, and Population Health: a Systematic Review |journal=Journal of Urban Health |date=February 2020 |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=1–25 |doi=10.1007/s11524-019-00400-1 |pmid=31938975 |pmc=7010901 }}</ref>

A 2020 review found that studies tended to show adverse health impacts for Black residents and elderly residents in areas undergoing gentrification.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bhavsar |first1=Nrupen A. |last2=Kumar |first2=Manish |last3=Richman |first3=Laura |title=Defining gentrification for epidemiologic research: A systematic review |journal=PLOS ONE |date=21 May 2020 |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=e0233361 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0233361 |pmid=32437388 |pmc=7241805 |bibcode=2020PLoSO..1533361B |doi-access=free }}</ref>

A 2019 study in New York, found that gentrification has no impact on rates of asthma or obesity among low-income children. Growing up in gentrifying neighborhoods was associated with moderate increases in being diagnosed with anxiety or depression between ages 9–11 relative to similar children raised in non-gentrifying areas. The effects of gentrification on mental health were most prominent for children living in market-rate (rather than subsidized) housing, which lead the authors of the study to suggest financial stress as a possible mechanism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dragan |first1=Kacie L. |last2=Ellen |first2=Ingrid Gould |last3=Glied |first3=Sherry A. |title=Gentrification And The Health Of Low-Income Children In New York City |journal=Health Affairs |date=1 September 2019 |volume=38 |issue=9 |pages=1425–1432 |doi=10.1377/hlthaff.2018.05422 |pmid=31479371 |s2cid=201831733 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Preventing or mitigating gentrification is thought to be a method to promote health equity.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-071521-113810|title=Promoting Health Equity Through Preventing or Mitigating the Effects of Gentrification: A Theoretical and Methodological Guide|first1=Helen V.S.|last1=Cole|first2=Isabelle|last2=Anguelovski|first3=Margarita|last3=Triguero-Mas|first4=Roshanak|last4=Mehdipanah|first5=Mariana|last5=Arcaya|date=3 April 2023|journal=Annual Review of Public Health|volume=44|issue=1|pages=193–211|doi=10.1146/annurev-publhealth-071521-113810|pmid=37010925 |s2cid=257912667 |hdl=1721.1/155289|hdl-access=free}}</ref>