Editing Geocentric model (section)

===Persian and Arab astronomy and geocentrism===
{{Main|Maragheh observatory|Astronomy in medieval Islam|Islamic cosmology}}
After the [[Graeco-Arabic translation movement|translation movement]] that included the translation of [[Almagest]] from Latin to Arabic, Muslims adopted and refined the geocentric model of [[Ptolemy]], which they believed correlated with the teachings of Islam.<ref name="princeton.edu">{{Cite web|url=https://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mike/texts/ptolemy/ptolemy.html|title = Ptolemaic Astronomy in the Middle Ages}}</ref><ref name="link.springer.com">{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_8988|doi=10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_8988|chapter=Almagest: Its Reception and Transmission in the Islamic World|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|year=2008|last1=Kunitzsch|first1=Paul|pages=140–141|isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2}}</ref><ref name="astronomy.com">{{Cite web|url=https://astronomy.com/news/2017/02/muslim-contributions-to-astronomy|title = How Islamic scholarship birthed modern astronomy| date=14 February 2017 }}</ref> [[List of Muslim astronomers|Muslim astronomers]] generally accepted the Ptolemaic system and the geocentric model,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sabra | first1 = A. I. | year = 1998 | title = Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy | journal = [[Perspectives on Science]] | volume = 6 | issue = 3| pages = 288–330 [317–18] | doi = 10.1162/posc_a_00552 | s2cid = 117426616 }} {{blockquote|All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted ... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere ... concentrically envelops the other.}}</ref> but by the 10th century, texts appeared regularly whose subject matter expressed doubts concerning Ptolemy (''shukūk'').<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 9780521576000| last = Hoskin| first = Michael| title = The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy| date = 1999-03-18|page=60}}</ref> Several Muslim scholars questioned Earth's apparent immobility<ref name= "Ragep2001a"/><ref name= "Ragep2001b"/> and centrality within the universe.<ref name=Setia2004 /> Some Muslim astronomers believed that [[Earth's rotation|Earth rotates around its axis]], such as [[Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi]] (d. circa 1020).<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 108| issue = 67| pages = 762| last = Alessandro Bausani| title = Cosmology and Religion in Islam| journal = Scientia/Rivista di Scienza| date = 1973}}</ref><ref name=young /> According to [[al-Biruni]], Sijzi invented an [[astrolabe]] called ''al-zūraqī'', based upon a belief held by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky".<ref name=young /><ref>{{Cite book| publisher = SUNY Press| isbn = 9781438414195| last = Nasr| first = Seyyed Hossein| title = An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines| date = 1993-01-01|page=135}}</ref> The prevalence of this belief is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century that states: <blockquote>According to the geometers [or engineers] (''muhandisīn''), the Earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the Earth and not the stars.<ref name=young>{{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 9780521028875| editor-last1 = Young| editor-first1 = M. J. L.| title = Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period| date = 2006-11-02|page=413}}</ref></blockquote> Early in the 11th century, [[Alhazen]] wrote a scathing critique of [[Ptolemy]]'s model in his ''Doubts on Ptolemy'' ({{circa|1028}}), which some have interpreted to imply he was criticizing Ptolemy's geocentrism,{{sfn|Qadir|1989|p=5–10}} but most agree that he was actually criticizing the details of Ptolemy's model rather than his geocentrism.<ref>[http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/copernicus/index.html Nicolaus Copernicus], [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] (2004).</ref>
In the 12th century, [[Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī|Arzachel]] departed from the ancient Greek idea of [[uniform circular motion]]s by hypothesizing that the planet [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] moves in an [[elliptic orbit]],<ref name= "Rufus1939"/><ref name= "Hartner1955"/> while [[Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji|Alpetragius]] proposed a planetary model that abandoned the [[equant]], [[Deferent and epicycle|epicycle and eccentric]] mechanisms,<ref name= "Goldstein1972"/> though this resulted in a system that was mathematically less accurate.<ref name= "Gale"/> His alternative system spread through most of Europe during the 13th century.<ref name=DSB>{{cite encyclopedia | last = Samsó | first = Julio | title =Al-Bitruji Al-Ishbili, Abu Ishaq| encyclopedia = [[Dictionary of Scientific Biography]] | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | location = New York | year=1970–80 | isbn = 0-684-10114-9 | url = http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830904829.html}}</ref>

[[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]] (1149–1209), in dealing with his [[Physics in medieval Islam|conception of physics]] and the physical world in his ''Matalib'', rejects the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] and [[Avicennism|Avicennian]] notion of the Earth's centrality within the universe, but instead argues that there are "a thousand thousand worlds (''alfa alfi 'awalim'') beyond this world, such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world, as well as having the like of what this world has." To support his [[Islamic theology|theological argument]], he cites the [[Qur'an]]ic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds", emphasizing the term "Worlds".<ref name= "Setia2004"/>

The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragha school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the [[Maragheh observatory|Maragha observatory]] and continuing with astronomers from the [[Umayyad Mosque|Damascus mosque]] and [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Samarkand observatory]]. Like their [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the [[equant]] problem (the circle around whose circumference a planet or the center of an [[epicycle]] was conceived to move uniformly) and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model without abandoning geocentrism. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations.<ref name= "Saliba1994"/> The most important of the Maragha astronomers included [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi]] (died 1266), [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] (1201–1274), [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]] (1236–1311), [[Ibn al-Shatir]] (1304–1375), [[Ali Qushji]] ({{circa|1474}}), [[Al-Birjandi]] (died 1525), and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (died 1550).<ref name= "Dallal1999"/>

However, the Maragha school never made the [[paradigm shift]] to heliocentrism.<ref name="Huff2003"/> The influence of the Maragha school on [[Copernicus]] remains speculative, since there is no documentary evidence to prove it. The possibility that Copernicus independently developed the Tusi couple remains open, since no researcher has yet demonstrated that he knew about Tusi's work or that of the Maragha school.<ref name="Huff2003" /><ref name="KirmaniSingh2005"/>