Editing Gerald Bull (section)

===Canada===
The Canadian Armament and Research Development Establishment (CARDE) was formed as a joint Canadian-British operation to study artillery and ballistics, in an effort to harness the intellectual resources of Canada, as well as to place developing British technology outside of German reach during World War II. Formed up on a military training area and artillery range outside [[Valcartier]], northwest of [[Quebec City]], CARDE was one of a number of research divisions of the DRB that were well funded in the immediate post-war era. CARDE was researching [[supersonic]] flight and a variety of rocket and missile projects when Bull was asked to join. Bull asked to build a wind tunnel for this research, but his suggestions were dismissed as too expensive.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

Gunners at CARDE suggested that firing models out of existing gun barrels would permit gathering data at much lower cost, and guided Bull in this direction. As a proof of concept, they tried an [[Ordnance QF 17-pounder]] barrel bored to {{convert|3.9|in|mm}}. The aerodynamicists' demands to accommodate larger models resulted in boring out a [[BL 5.5 inch Medium Gun]] barrel to produce a {{convert|5.9|in|mm}} smooth-bore. Borrowing an idea developed in England in 1916, cards were placed on holders along the range and scaled models of the missile fired through them. The models were carried in a segmented aluminum [[sabot (firearms)|sabot]], which peeled away as the round left the muzzle.

As originally built the range was {{convert|1000|yd}} long, with "jump cards" located at {{convert|100|yd}} intervals. A metallic coating on the cards permitted timing of flight progress to measure velocity. One station was equipped for [[Schlieren photography]] to record the shock waves and wake around the projectile. In some ways this technique was superior to wind tunnel study, as it allowed for the direct measurement of real-world influences on the trajectory, as a test of theoretical calculations. On the downside, reducing the collected data to a mathematical trajectory for checking against the theoretical calculations is difficult.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

Bull was at CARDE briefly before returning to the university to defend his thesis in March 1951, at 23 years old becoming the youngest PhD graduate in the institute's history—a record that remains to this day. He returned to CARDE, now on the DRB's payroll, and continued working on the instrumented guns. On one of these trips, in 1953, he and a friend stopped in [[Charny, Quebec|Charny]] after a fishing trip to drop off some of their catch at a local doctor's house. Bull met Noemi "Mimi" Gilbert, the doctor's daughter, and the two soon started dating. Given Bull's work schedule they were rarely able to see each other, but they became engaged in February 1954, and married on July 15. Gilbert gave the couple a small house as a wedding gift. Mimi gave birth to their first son, Phillippe, on July 3, 1955, and a second, Michel, in November 1956.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

In 1954 Bull decided that a wind tunnel was too important to ignore, even if he could not arrange for funding through the DRB. Instead, he gained the ear of professors at [[Laval University]] in Quebec City, and Bull and a number of graduate students started work on a tunnel similar to the one he had earlier built at the UofT. It opened in the summer of 1955 and was capable of speeds up to Mach 4, but cost only $6,000, the result of using scrap for most of its parts.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}

Bull's work was brought to the public's attention in a May 20, 1955 ''[[Toronto Telegram]]'' headline article, ''Unveil Canadian Gun that Fires 4,550 M.P.H. Missiles''. Around this time Bull further improved the data-collection capabilities of the system by developing a telemetry system that could fit in the models. DRB staff thought the idea was unworkable and worked against having it funded, but Bull shuffled his own department's funding and went ahead and developed it anyway. All the parts of Bull's future efforts, smooth-bore high-velocity guns, sabots for increasing performance, and hardened electronics, were now complete.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

Work on the [[Velvet Glove]] ended in 1956, and the DRB turned its attention to [[anti-ballistic missile]]s (ABMs). Bull's gun system was not fast enough to be useful in this role, so it was adapted to use a "sabot" to improve its performance. Bull then moved on to hypersonics research and the study of [[infrared]] and [[radar cross section]]s for detection. As the UK's research efforts wound down in the post-war political environment, CARDE's joint UK-Canadian funding was dramatically cut back, with the project eventually being handed over to the Canadians entirely and followed by further cuts. Bull was vocal about this turn of events, calling the Liberal government of the day "second-rate lawyers and jumped-up real-estate salesmen".{{sfnp|Grant|1991|p=42}}

During this period CARDE was visited by a US team, including Lieutenant General [[Arthur Trudeau]], who was impressed with Bull's work. Trudeau was director of US Army Research and Development, and he quickly set up a similar effort at the [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]] under the direction of Dr. Charles Murphy.{{Who|date=March 2016}} They built an analog of Bull's gun using a {{convert|5|in|mm|adj=on}} gun and started test firing it over the Atlantic in 1961. The team used a fire-control radar from a [[Nike Hercules]] missile battery to track the shells, which released a cloud of [[Chaff (countermeasure)|chaff]] at altitudes up to {{convert|130000|ft|m}}.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

Around the same time, Bull and Murphy started discussing the idea of firing scale aircraft models from their guns. Both started working on the idea, but Bull beat Murphy when he successfully fired a model of the [[Gloster Javelin]] from his gun and managed to take shadowgraph photos of it showing supersonic shock cones. Bull then used the same method to work on the [[Avro Arrow]], discovering an instability that led to the use of a [[stability augmentation system]]. Work on the Avro Arrow was soon cancelled, which angered Bull.{{sfnp|Grant|1991|p=51}}

With attention turning to space after the launch of [[Sputnik]] in 1957, Bull leaked a story that Canada would soon match this feat by placing a high-velocity gun in the nose of a US Army [[Redstone missile]]. The story was a complete fabrication, but caused a major stir when it hit the papers on April 22, 1958.{{sfnp|Grant|1991|pp=52–53}} After the story broke Prime Minister [[John Diefenbaker]] was besieged in the House of Commons [[press scrum]], later dismissing it stating that "There is no foundation whatsoever to the story, not a scintilla of truth to it".{{sfnp|Grant|1991|p=53}}

A major flap broke out as a result, leading to the dressing down of several of Bull's superiors. When the press was invited to visit CARDE, the [[Canadian Broadcasting Company]] broadcast a piece covering much of the work at CARDE on May 11, including lengthy sections on Bull's gun and their work on [[infrared]] detection and [[anti-ballistic missile]] systems.<ref>[http://archives.cbc.ca/war_conflict/national_security/clips/3353/ A supersonic scientist], CBC.ca, May 11, 1958.</ref>

On April 1, 1961, Bull got into an argument with his direct superior over paperwork. Bull wrote out his resignation. A report prepared after his departure stated "... his tempestuous nature and strong dislike for administration and red tape constantly led him into trouble with senior management."{{sfnp|Grant|1991|p=55}}