Editing Ghaznavids (section)

===Mahmud, son of Sabuktigin===
{{Main|Mahmud of Ghazni}}
[[File:Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Folio from a Majma al-Tavarikh (World Histories, 1425) MET AD-37.193a.jpg|thumb|upright|Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. ''Majma al-Tavarikh''' (1425)]]
In 998, [[Mahmud of Ghaznavid|Mahmud]], son of Sebuktigin, succeeded to the governorship, and Ghazni and the Ghaznavid dynasty became perpetually associated with him. He emphasized his loyalty in a letter to the caliph, saying that the Samanids had only been replaced because of their treason.{{sfn|Kennedy|1986|p=301}} Mahmud received the governorship of Khurasan and titles of Yamin al-Dawla and Amin al-Milla.{{sfn|Kennedy|1986|p=301}} As a representative of caliphal authority, he championed Sunni Islam by campaigning against the Ismaili and Shi'ite Buyids.{{sfn|Kennedy|1986|p=301}} He completed the conquest of the Samanid and [[Hindu Shahi|Shahi]] territories, including the [[Ismaili]] [[Emirate of Multan|Kingdom of Multan]], [[Sindh]], as well as some [[Buyid dynasty|Buwayhid]] territory.

By all accounts, the rule of Mahmud was the golden age and height of the Ghaznavid Empire. Mahmud carried out seventeen expeditions through northern India to establish his control and set up tributary states, and his raids also resulted in the looting of a great deal of plunder. He established his authority from the borders of [[Ray, Iran|Ray]] to [[Samarkand]], from the [[Caspian Sea]] to the [[Yamuna]].

During Mahmud's reign (997–1030), the Ghaznavids settled 4,000 [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] families near Farana in Khorasan. By 1027, due to the Turkmen raiding neighbouring settlements, the governor of Tus, Abu l'Alarith Arslan Jadhib, led military strikes against them. The Turkmen were defeated and scattered to neighbouring lands.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=224}} Still, as late as 1033, Ghaznavid governor [[Tash Farrash]] executed fifty Turkmen chiefs for raids into Khorasan.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=225}}

====Indian conquests====
{{Main|Ghaznavid campaigns in India}}
[[File:Mahmud of Ghazni receiving Indian elephants as tribute (Majmu al-Tawarikh, Hafiz i-Abru, Herat, 1425).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Mahmud of Ghazni receiving Indian elephants as tribute (''Majmu al-Tawarikh'', Hafiz i-Abru, Herat, 1425).<ref>{{cite web |title=An Indian Embassy before Sultan Mahmud of Ghanzna, from the "Majmal al-Tawarikh" of Hafiz-e Abru |url=https://worcester.emuseum.com/objects/11449/an-indian-embassy-before-sultan-mahmud-of-ghanzna-from-the|website=worcester.emuseum.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Flood |first1=Finbarr B. |title=Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter |date=20 March 2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-18074-8 |page=80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MhJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 |language=en}}</ref>]]
Mahmud of Ghazni led incursions deep into [[India]], as far as [[Mathura]], [[Kannauj]] and [[Somnath]]. In 1001, he defeated the [[Hindu Shahi]] in the [[Battle of Peshawar (1001)|Battle of Peshawar]]. In 1004-5, he invaded the [[Bhera|Principality of Bhatiya]] and in 1006 the neighbouring [[Emirate of Multan]].<ref name="DAA">{{cite book |last1=Ahmad |first1=Dr Aijaz |title=New Dimensions of Indian Historiography : Historical Facts and Hindutva Interpretation |date=6 March 2022 |publisher=K.K. Publications |page=145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AttiEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA145 |language=en}}</ref> In 1008-9, he again vanquished the [[Hindu Shahis]] at the [[Battle of Chach]], and established Governors in the conquered areas.<ref name="DAA" /> In India, the Ghaznavids were called ''Turushkas'' ("Turks") or ''Hammiras'' (from the Arabic ''Amir'' "Commander").{{sfn|Eaton|2019|p=29}}

In 1018, he laid waste the city of [[Mathura]], which was "ruthlessly sacked, ravaged, desecrated and destroyed".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grousset |first1=René |title=The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia |date=1970 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-1304-1 |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CHzGvqRbV_IC&pg=PA146 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sethi |first1=R. R. |last2=Saran |first2=Parmatma |last3=Bhandari |first3=D. R. |title=The March of Indian History |date=1951 |publisher=Ranjit Printers & Publishers |page=269 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbNGAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> According to [[Firishta|Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah]], writing an "History of Hindustan" in the 16th-17th century, the city of Mathura was the richest in India. When it was attacked by Mahmud of Ghazni, [[Art of Mathura|"all the idols" were burnt and destroyed]] during a period of twenty days, gold and silver was smelted for booty, and the city was burnt down.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Firishtah |first1=Muḥammad Qāsim Hindū Shāh Astarābādī |title=The history of Hindustan. Vol. 1 |date=2003 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publisher |isbn=978-81-208-1994-8 |page=60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bTyRYXtxMSEC&pg=PA60 |language=en}}</ref> In 1018 Mahmud also captured [[Kanauj]], the capital of the [[Pratihara dynasty|Pratiharas]], and then confronted the [[Chandelas of Jejakabhukti|Chandelas]], from whom he obtained the payment of tribute.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mitra |first1=Sisir Kumar |title=The Early Rulers of Khajur |date=1977 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1997-9 |pages=81–82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=irHN2UA_Z7gC&pg=PA81 |language=en|edition=Second Revised }}</ref> In 1026, he raided and plundered the [[Somnath temple]], taking away a booty of 20 million dinars.{{sfn|Yagnik|Sheth|2005|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Thapar|2004|pp=36–37}}

The wealth brought back from Mahmud's [[India]]n expeditions to Ghazni was enormous, and contemporary historians (''e.g.'', [[Abolfazl Beyhaghi]], [[Ferdowsi]]) give glowing descriptions of the magnificence of the capital and of the conqueror's munificent support of literature.<ref>{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Ghazni|volume=11|pages=917–918}}</ref> Mahmud died in April 1030 and had chosen his son, Mohammed, as his successor.{{sfn|Bosworth|1963|p=228}}