Editing Hawaiian language (section)

==History==
{{for|Hawaiian language history before 1778|#Family and origin}}

===First European contact===

In 1778, British explorer James Cook made Europe's initial, recorded [[First contact (anthropology)|first contact]] with Hawaiʻi, beginning a new phase in the development of Hawaiian. During the next forty years, the sounds of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (1789), [[Russian language|Russian]] (1804), [[French language|French]] (1816), and [[German language|German]] (1816) arrived in Hawai{{okina}}i via other explorers and businessmen. Hawaiian began to be written for the first time, largely restricted to isolated names and words, and word lists collected by explorers and travelers.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schütz|1994|pp=31–40}}</ref>

The early explorers and merchants who first brought European languages to the Hawaiian islands also took on a few native crew members who brought the Hawaiian language into new territory.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schütz|1994|pp=43–44}}</ref> Hawaiians took these nautical jobs because their traditional way of life changed due to plantations, and although there were not enough of these Hawaiian-speaking explorers to establish any viable speech communities abroad, they still had a noticeable presence.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Vanishing Voices|url=https://archive.org/details/vanishingvoicese00nett|url-access=limited|last=Nettle and Romaine|first=Daniel and Suzanne|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|pages=[https://archive.org/details/vanishingvoicese00nett/page/n105 93]–97|isbn=978-0-19-513624-1}}</ref> One of them, a boy in his teens known as [[Henry Opukahaia|Obookiah]] ({{lang|haw|{{okina}}Ōpūkaha{{okina}}ia}}), had a major impact on the future of the language. He sailed to [[New England]], where he eventually became a student at the [[Foreign Mission School]] in [[Cornwall, Connecticut]]. He inspired New Englanders to support a Christian mission to Hawai{{okina}}i, and provided information on the Hawaiian language to the American missionaries there prior to their departure for Hawai{{okina}}i in 1819.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schütz|1994|pp=85–97}}</ref> [[Adelbert von Chamisso]] too might have consulted with a native speaker of Hawaiian in Berlin, [[Germany]], before publishing his grammar of Hawaiian (''{{lang|de|Über die Hawaiische Sprache}}'') in 1837.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Elbert|Pukui|1979|pp=2}}</ref>

====Folk tales====
Like all natural spoken languages, the Hawaiian language was originally an oral language. The native people of the Hawaiian language relayed religion, traditions, history, and views of their world through stories that were handed down from generation to generation. One form of storytelling most commonly associated with the Hawaiian islands is [[hula]]. Nathaniel B. Emerson notes that "It kept the communal imagination in living touch with the nation's legendary past".<ref>{{Cite book |title=Unwritten Literature of Hawaii: The Sacred Songs of the Hula |url=https://archive.org/details/unwrittenlitera01emergoog |last=Emerson |first=Nathaniel B. |publisher=Washington Government Printing Office |year=1909 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/unwrittenlitera01emergoog/page/n13 7] }}</ref>

The islanders' connection with their stories is argued to be one reason why Captain James Cook received a pleasant welcome. [[Marshall Sahlins]] has observed that Hawaiian folktales began bearing similar content to those of the Western world in the eighteenth century.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Islands of History |url=https://archive.org/details/islandsofhistory00sahl |url-access=registration |last=Sahlins |first=Marshall |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1985}}</ref> He argues this was caused by the timing of Captain Cook's arrival, which was coincidentally when the indigenous Hawaiians were celebrating the [[Makahiki festival]], which is the annual celebration of the harvest in honor of the god [[Lono]]. The celebration lasts for the entirety of the [[rainy season]]. It is a time of peace with much emphasis on amusements, food, games, and dancing.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Handy|first=E.S.|title=Native Planters in Old Hawaii: Their Life, Lore, and Environment|publisher=[[Bishop Museum Press]]|year=1972}}</ref> The islanders' story foretold of the god Lono's return at the time of the Makahiki festival.<ref>Kanopy (Firm). (2016). ''Nature Gods and Tricksters of Polynesia.'' San Francisco, California, US: Ka Streaming. http://[institution].kanopystreaming.com/node/161213</ref>

===Written Hawaiian===

In 1820, [[Protestant]] [[missionaries]] from [[New England]] arrived in Hawaiʻi, and in a few years converted the chiefs to [[Congregational church|Congregational]] Protestantism, who in turn converted their subjects. To the missionaries, the thorough Christianization of the kingdom necessitated a complete translation of the Bible to Hawaiian, a previously unwritten language, and therefore the creation of a standard spelling that should be as easy to master as possible. The orthography created by the missionaries was so straightforward that literacy spread very quickly among the adult population; at the same time, the Mission set more and more schools for children.

[[File:Ka Lama Hawaii.gif|thumb|Headline from May 16, 1834, issue of newspaper published by [[Lorrin Andrews]] and students at [[Lahainaluna]] School]]
In 1834, the first Hawaiian-language newspapers were published by missionaries working with locals. The missionaries also played a significant role in publishing a vocabulary (1836),<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Andrews|1836}}</ref> grammar (1854),<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Elbert|1954}}</ref> and dictionary (1865)<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Andrews|1865}}</ref> of Hawaiian. The Hawaiian Bible was fully completed in 1839; by then, the Mission had such a wide-reaching school network that, when in 1840 it handed it over to the Hawaiian government, the Hawaiian Legislature mandated compulsory state-funded education for all children under 14 years of age, including girls, twelve years before any similar [[Compulsory education#United States|compulsory education]] law was enacted for the first time in any of the United States.<ref>Fernández Asensio (2019:14–15)</ref>

Literacy in Hawaiian was so widespread that in 1842 a law mandated that people born after 1819 had to be literate to be allowed to marry. In his ''Report to the Legislature'' for the year 1853 [[Richard Armstrong (Hawaii missionary)|Richard Armstrong]], the minister of Public Instruction, bragged that 75% of the adult population could read.<ref>Fernández Asensio (2019:15)</ref> Use of the language among the general population might have peaked around 1881. Even so, some people worried, as early as 1854, that the language was "soon destined to extinction."<ref>quoted in {{Harvcoltxt|Schütz|1994|pp=269–270}}</ref>

When Hawaiian King [[Kalākaua|David Kalākaua]] took a trip around the world, he brought his native language with him. When his wife, Queen [[Kapiʻolani]], and his sister, Princess (later Queen) [[Liliʻuokalani]], took a trip across North America and on to the British Isles, in 1887, Liliʻuokalani's composition "[[Aloha ʻOe]]" was already a famous song in the U.S.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Carter|1996|pp=7, 169}} example 138, quoting McGuire</ref>

===Suppression of Hawaiian===
The decline of the Hawaiian language was accelerated by the coup that overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy and dethroned the existing Hawaiian queen. Thereafter, a law was instituted that required English as the main language of school instruction.<ref name=":1" /> The law cited is identified as Act 57, sec. 30 of the 1896 Laws of the Republic of Hawai{{okina}}i:

{{blockquote|text=The English Language shall be the medium and basis of instruction in all public and private schools, provided that where it is desired that another language shall be taught in addition to the English language, such instruction may be authorized by the Department, either by its rules, the curriculum of the school, or by direct order in any particular instance. Any schools that shall not conform to the provisions of this section shall not be recognized by the Department.|source=The Laws of Hawaii, Chapter 10, Section 123<ref name="Congress 1898 p. 1-PA23">{{cite book | last=Congress | first=United States. | title=Congressional Edition | publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office | issue=v. 3727 | year=1898 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSxHAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA23 | access-date=2017-07-20 | page=1–PA23}}</ref>}}

This law established English as the medium of instruction for the government-recognized schools both "public and private". While it did not ban or make illegal the Hawaiian language in other contexts, its implementation in the schools had far-reaching effects. Those who had been pushing for English-only schools took this law as licence to extinguish the native language at the early education level. While the law did not make Hawaiian illegal (it was still commonly spoken at the time), many children who spoke Hawaiian at school, including on the playground, were disciplined. This included corporal punishment and going to the home of the offending child to advise them strongly to stop speaking it in their home.<ref>{{Cite book|last=United States. Native Hawaiians Study Commission.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/10865978|title=Native Hawaiians Study Commission : report on the culture, needs, and concerns of native Hawaiians.|publisher=[U.S. Dept. of the Interior]|year=1983|pages=196/213|oclc=10865978}}</ref> Moreover, the law specifically provided for teaching languages "in addition to the English language", reducing Hawaiian to the status of an extra language, subject to approval by the department. Hawaiian was not taught initially in any school, including the all-Hawaiian [[Kamehameha Schools]]. This is largely because when these schools were founded, like Kamehameha Schools founded in 1887 (nine years before this law), Hawaiian was being spoken in the home. Once this law was enacted, individuals at these institutions took it upon themselves to enforce a ban on Hawaiian. Beginning in 1900, [[Mary Kawena Pukui]], who was later the co-author of the Hawaiian–English Dictionary, was punished for speaking Hawaiian by being rapped on the forehead, allowed to eat only bread and water for lunch, and denied home visits on holidays.<ref>Mary Kawena Pukui, ''Nana i ke Kumu, Vol. 2'' p. 61–62</ref> [[Winona Beamer]] was expelled from Kamehameha Schools in 1937 for chanting Hawaiian.<ref>M. J. Harden, ''Voices of Wisdom: Hawaiian Elders Speak,'' p. 99</ref> Due in part to this systemic suppression of the language after the overthrow, Hawaiian is still considered a critically endangered language.

[[File:Student nationality Hawaii 1890-1920.svg|thumb|National origin of students in the schools of Hawaii (1890–1920)]]
However, informal coercion to drop Hawaiian would not have worked by itself. Just as important was the fact that, in the same period, native Hawaiians were becoming a minority in their own land on account of the growing influx of foreign labourers and their children. Whereas in 1890 pure Hawaiian students made 56% of school enrollment, in 1900 their numbers were down to 32% and, in 1910, to 16.9%.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Reinecke, John E.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17917779|title=Language and dialect in Hawaii : a sociolinguistic history to 1935|year=1988 |orig-year= 1969|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|others=Tsuzaki, Stanley M.|isbn=0-8248-1209-3|location=Honolulu|pages=74–76|oclc=17917779}}</ref> At the same time, Hawaiians were very prone to intermarriage: the number of "Part-Hawaiian" students (i.e., children of mixed White-Hawaiian marriages) grew from 1573 in 1890 to 3718 in 1910.<ref name=":4" /> In such mixed households, the low prestige of Hawaiian led to the adoption of English as the family language. Moreover, Hawaiians lived mostly in the cities or scattered across the countryside, in direct contact with other ethnic groups and without any stronghold (with the exception of Niʻihau). Thus, even pure Hawaiian children would converse daily with their schoolmates of diverse mother tongues in English, which was now not just the teachers' language but also the common language needed for everyday communication among friends and neighbours out of school as well. In only a generation English (or rather Pidgin) would become the primary and dominant language of all children, despite the efforts of Hawaiian and immigrant parents to maintain their ancestral languages within the family.

===1949 to present===
In 1949, the legislature of the Territory of Hawai{{okina}}i commissioned Mary Kawena Pukui and Samuel Hoyt Elbert to write a new dictionary of Hawaiian, either revising the Andrews-Parker work or starting from scratch.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Schütz|1994|pp=230}}</ref> Pukui and Elbert took a middle course, using what they could from the Andrews dictionary, but making certain improvements and additions that were more significant than a minor revision. The dictionary they produced, in 1957, introduced an era of gradual increase in attention to the language and culture.

Language revitalization and Hawaiian culture has seen a major revival since the [[Hawaiian Renaissance|Hawaiian renaissance]] in the 1970s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Snyder-Frey |first=Alicia |date=2013-05-01 |title=He kuleana kō kākou: Hawaiian-language learners and the construction of (alter)native identities |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2013.818504 |journal=Current Issues in Language Planning |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=231–243 |doi=10.1080/14664208.2013.818504 |s2cid=143367347 |issn=1466-4208|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Forming in 1983, the [[ʻAha Pūnana Leo]], meaning "language nest" in Hawaiian, opened its first center in 1984. It was a privately funded Hawaiian preschool program that invited native Hawaiian elders to speak to children in Hawaiian every day.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=W.H. |last2=Kamanä |first2=K. |title="For the Interest of the Hawaiians Themselves": Reclaiming the Benefits of Hawaiian-Medium Education |journal=Hūlili: Multidisciplinary Research on Hawaiian Well-Being |date=2006 |volume=3 |issue=1 |url=https://www.mokuolahonua.com/resources/language-movements-history-background-and-approach/2019/2/16/for-the-interest-of-the-hawaiians-themselves-reclaiming-the-benefits-of-hawaiian-medium-education-jtexg |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20211012235930/https://www.mokuolahonua.com/resources/language-movements-history-background-and-approach/2019/2/16/for-the-interest-of-the-hawaiians-themselves-reclaiming-the-benefits-of-hawaiian-medium-education-jtexg |archivedate=October 12, 2021}}</ref>

Efforts to promote the language have increased in recent decades. Hawaiian-language "immersion" schools are now open to children whose families want to reintroduce the Hawaiian language for future generations.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Warner|1996}}</ref> The [[Pūnana Leo|{{okina}}Aha Pūnana Leo]]'s Hawaiian language preschools in [[Hilo, Hawaii]], have received international recognition.<ref>{{Cite news
| title = Hawaiian Language Preschools Garner International Recognition
| work = Indian Country Today Media Network
| access-date = 2014-06-07
| date = 2004-05-30
| url = http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/05/30/hawaiian-language-preschools-garner-international-recognition-155079
}}</ref> The local [[National Public Radio]] station features a short segment titled "Hawaiian word of the day" and a Hawaiian language news broadcast. [[Honolulu]] television station [[KGMB]] ran a weekly Hawaiian language program, ''{{okina}}Āha{{okina}}i {{okina}}Ōlelo Ola'', as recently as 2010.<ref name="Hawaii News Now">{{cite web|url=http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/Global/story.asp?S=12673727|title=Hawaiian News: ʻÂhaʻi ʻÔlelo Ola – Hawaii News Now – KGMB and KHNL|work=Hawaii News Now|access-date=May 12, 2012|archive-date=December 21, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221130937/http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/Global/story.asp?S=12673727|url-status=dead}}</ref> Additionally, the Sunday editions of the ''[[Honolulu Star-Advertiser]]'', the largest newspaper in Hawaii, feature a brief article called ''Kauakukalahale'' written entirely in Hawaiian by teachers, students, and community members.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.staradvertiser.com/category/editorial/kauakukalahale/|title=KAUAKUKALAHALE archives|website=Honolulu Star-Advertiser|language=en-US|access-date=2019-01-20}}</ref>

Today, the number of native speakers of Hawaiian, which was under 0.1% of the statewide population in 1997, has risen to 2,000, out of 24,000 total who are fluent in the language, according to the US 2011 census. On six of the seven permanently inhabited islands, Hawaiian has been largely displaced by English, but on [[Niʻihau|Ni{{okina}}ihau]], native speakers of Hawaiian have remained fairly isolated and have continued to use Hawaiian almost exclusively.<ref name="Lyovin 1997 258">{{Harvcoltxt|Lyovin|1997|pp=258}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=Meet the last native speakers of Hawaiian|date=28 July 2016 |url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-07-28/last-native-speakers-hawaiian|access-date=10 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://hawaiiindependent.net/story/niihau-family-makes-rare-public-address|title=Niʻihau family makes rare public address|last1=Ramones|first1=Ikaika|website=Hawaii Independent|access-date=10 May 2017|archive-date=2 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502134709/http://hawaiiindependent.net/story/niihau-family-makes-rare-public-address|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Niʻihau===
{{blockquote|text=Niʻihau is the only area in the world where Hawaiian is the first language and English is a foreign language.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Elbert|Pukui|1979|pp=23}}</ref> | author=Samuel Elbert and Mary Pukui | source=''Hawaiian Grammar'' (1979)}}

The isolated island of [[Niʻihau]], located off the southwest coast of [[Kauai]], is the one island where Hawaiian (more specifically a local dialect of Hawaiian known as [[Niihau dialect]]) is still spoken as the language of daily life.<ref name="Lyovin 1997 258"/> 
{{Harvcoltxt|Elbert|Pukui|1979|pp=23}} states that "[v]ariations in Hawaiian dialects have not been systematically studied", and that "[t]he dialect of Niʻihau is the most aberrant and the one most in need of study". They recognized that Niʻihauans can speak Hawaiian in substantially different ways. Their statements are based in part on some specific observations made by {{Harvcoltxt|Newbrand|1951}}. (See [[Hawaiian phonology#Phonological processes|Hawaiian phonological processes]])

Friction has developed between those on Niʻihau that speak Hawaiian as a first language, and those who speak Hawaiian as a second language, especially those educated by the [[Ka Haka ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani, College of Hawaiian Language|College of Hawaiian Language]] at the [[University of Hawaiʻi at Hilo]]. The university sponsors a Hawaiian Language Lexicon Committee ({{lang|haw|Kōmike Huaʻōlelo Hou}}) which coins words for concepts that historically have not existed in the language, like "computer" and "cell phone". These words are generally not incorporated into the Niʻihau dialect, which often coins its own words organically. Some new words are Hawaiianized versions of English words, and some are composed of Hawaiian roots.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2016-07-28/last-native-speakers-hawaiian |title=Meet the last native speakers of Hawaiian |date=2016-07-28 |author=Nina Porzucki |publisher=[[The World (radio program)|The World]] (The World in Words podcast)}}</ref>