Editing James VI and I (section)

==Rule in Scotland==
[[File:James-VI-1586-Age-20.jpg|thumb|left|upright|James in 1586, age 20 (attrib. [[Adrian Vanson]] or the school of [[Alonso Sánchez Coello]])]]

Lennox was a [[Protestant]] convert, but he was distrusted by Scottish [[Calvinists]] who noticed the physical displays of affection between him and the king and alleged that Lennox "went about to draw the King to carnal lust".{{Sfn|Croft|2003|p=15}} In August 1582, in what became known as the [[Ruthven Raid]], the Protestant earls [[William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie|William Ruthven, Earl of Gowrie]] and [[Archibald Douglas, 8th Earl of Angus|Archibald Douglas, Earl of Angus]] lured James into [[Huntingtower Castle|Ruthven Castle]], imprisoned him,{{Efn|James's captors forced from him a proclamation, dated 30 August, declaring that he was not being held prisoner "forced or constrained, for fear or terror, or against his will", and that no one should come to his aid as a result of "seditious or contrary reports".{{Sfn|Stewart|2003|p=66}} }} and forced Lennox to leave Scotland. On 19 September 1582, during James's imprisonment, [[John Craig (minister)|John Craig]], whom the king had personally appointed royal chaplain in 1579, rebuked him so sharply from the pulpit for having issued a proclamation so offensive to the clergy "that the king wept".{{Sfn|Law|1904|pp=[https://archive.org/stream/collectedessays00lawgoog#page/n318/mode/2up 295, 297]}}

After James escaped from Falkland on 27 June 1583,<ref>"Ruthven, William", by T. F. Henderson, in ''Dictionary of National Biography'', Volume 50 (Smith, Elder, & Co., 1897)</ref> he assumed increasing control of his kingdom. He pushed through the [[History of the Scottish Episcopal Church#Episcopal government maintained|Black Acts]] to assert royal authority over the Kirk, and denounced the writings of his former tutor Buchanan.<ref>{{Harvnb|Croft|2003|pp=17–18}}; {{Harvnb|Willson|1963|pp=39, 50}}.</ref> Between 1584 and 1603, he established effective royal government and relative peace among the lords, ably assisted by [[John Maitland of Thirlestane]], who led the government until 1592.{{Sfn|Croft|2003|p=20}} An eight-man commission known as the [[Octavians]] brought some control over the ruinous state of James's finances in 1596, but it drew opposition from vested interests. It was disbanded within a year after a riot in Edinburgh, which was stoked by anti-Catholicism and led the court to withdraw to Linlithgow temporarily.<ref>{{Harvnb|Croft|2003|pp=29, 41–42}}; {{Harvnb|Willson|1963|pp=121–124}}.</ref>

One last Scottish attempt against the king's person occurred in August 1600, when James was apparently assaulted by [[Alexander Ruthven]], the younger brother of [[John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie|John Ruthven, Earl of Gowrie]] at [[Gowrie House (Perth, Scotland)|Gowrie House]], the seat of the Ruthvens.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lockyer|1998|pp=24–25}}; {{Harvnb|Stewart|2003|pp=150–157}}.</ref> Ruthven was run through by James's page [[John Ramsay, 1st Earl of Holderness|John Ramsay]], and the Earl of Gowrie was killed in the ensuing fracas; there were few surviving witnesses. Given James's history with the Ruthvens and the fact that he owed them a great deal of money, his account of the circumstances was not universally believed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Croft|2003|p=45}}; [[George Nicholson (diplomat)|George Nicolson]] quoted by {{Harvnb|Stewart|2003|p=154}}: "It is begun to be noted that the reports coming from the King should differ"; {{Harvnb|Williams|1970|p=61}}: "The two principal characters were dead, the evidence of eyewitnesses was destroyed and only King James's version remained"; {{Harvnb|Willson|1963|pp=126–130}}.</ref>

In 1586, James signed the [[Treaty of Berwick (1586)|Treaty of Berwick]] with England. That and his mother's execution in 1587, which he denounced as a "preposterous and strange procedure", helped clear the way for his succession south of the border.{{Efn|James briefly broke off diplomatic relations with England over Mary's execution, but he wrote privately that Scotland "could never have been without factions if she had beene left alive".{{Sfn|Croft|2003|p=22}} }} Queen Elizabeth was unmarried and childless, and James was her [[Succession to Elizabeth I|most likely successor]]. Securing the English succession became a cornerstone of his policy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lockyer|1998|pp=29–31}}; {{Harvnb|Willson|1963|p=52}}.</ref> During the [[Spanish Armada]] crisis of 1588, he assured Elizabeth of his support as "your natural son and compatriot of your country".{{Sfn|Croft|2003|p=23}} Elizabeth sent James [[English subsidy of James VI|an annual subsidy]] from 1586 which gave her some leverage over affairs in Scotland.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Goodare |first=Julian |title=The Reign of James VI |date=2000 |publisher=Tuckwell |editor-last=Goodare |editor-first=Julian |location=East Linton |page=115 |chapter=James VI's English Subsidy |editor-last2=Lynch |editor-first2=Michael}}</ref>

===Marriage===
[[File:Marriage contract between Princess Anna of Denmark and Jacob 6. of Scotland 1589.jpg|thumb|1589 marriage contract between James and Anne of Denmark]]
[[File:John De Critz Anne of Denmark 1605.jpg|thumb|Queen Anne {{Circa}} 1605, portrait attributed to [[John de Critz]]]]

Throughout his youth, James was praised for his chastity, since he showed little interest in women. After the loss of Lennox, he continued to prefer male company.{{Sfn|Croft|2003|pp=23–24}} A suitable marriage, however, was necessary to reinforce his rule, and the choice fell on fourteen-year-old [[Anne of Denmark]], younger daughter of the Protestant Danish king [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II]]. Shortly after a [[proxy marriage]] in Copenhagen in August 1589, Anne sailed for Scotland but was forced by storms to the coast of Norway.{{Sfn|Courtney|2024|p=114}} On hearing that the crossing had been abandoned, James sailed from [[Leith]] with a 300-strong retinue to fetch Anne personally in what historian [[David Harris Willson]] called "the one romantic episode of his life".{{Sfn|Willson|1963|p=85}}{{Efn|James heard on 7 October of the decision to postpone the crossing for winter.{{Sfn|Stewart|2003|pp=107–110}} }} The couple were married formally at the [[Old Bishop's Palace in Oslo|Bishop's Palace in Oslo]] on 23 November. James received a dowry of 75,000 [[Danish rigsdaler|Danish dalers]] and a gift of 10,000 dalers from his mother-in-law, [[Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kerr-Peterson |first1=Miles |title=James VI's English Subsidy and Danish Dowry Accounts, 1588–1596 |last2=Pearce |first2=Michael |date=2020 |publisher=Woodbridge |series=Scottish History Society Miscellany XVI |page=35}}</ref> After stays at [[Elsinore]] and [[Copenhagen]] and a meeting with [[Tycho Brahe]], James and Anne returned to Scotland on 1 May 1590.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stevenson |first=David |title=Scotland's Last Royal Wedding |date=1997 |publisher=John Donald |location=Edinburgh |pages=99–100}}</ref>

By all accounts, James was at first infatuated with Anne and, in the early years of their marriage, seems always to have shown her patience and affection.{{Sfn|Willson|1963|pp=85–95}} They attended the wedding celebrations of courtiers and danced in [[masque]] costume.{{Sfn|Pearce|2022|pp=108–123}} The royal couple produced three children who survived to adulthood: [[Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales]], who died of [[typhoid fever]] in 1612, aged 18; [[Elizabeth of Bohemia|Elizabeth]], later [[queen of Bohemia]]; and [[Charles I of England|Charles]], James's successor. 

Anne suffered from recurrent bouts of sickness and was seriously ill from 1617. James visited Anne only three times during her last illness. She [[death and funeral of Anne of Denmark|died before her husband]], in March 1619.{{Sfn|Croft|2003|p=101}}

===Witch hunts===
[[File:North Berwick Witches.png|thumb|left|Suspected witches kneeling before King James; ''[[Daemonologie]]'' (1597)]]

James's visit to Denmark, a country familiar with [[witch-hunt]]s, sparked an interest in the study of [[witchcraft]],{{Sfn|Croft|2003|p=26}} which he considered a branch of theology.{{Sfn|Willson|1963|p=103}} He attended the [[North Berwick witch trials]], the first major [[Witch trials in early modern Scotland|persecution of witches in Scotland]] under the [[Witchcraft Act 1563]]. Several people were convicted of using witchcraft to send [[Anne of Denmark and contrary winds|storms against James's ship]], most notably [[Agnes Sampson]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Willumsen |first=Liv Helene |date=1 December 2020 |title=Witchcraft against Royal Danish Ships in 1589 and the Transnational Transfer of Ideas |url=https://www.irss.uoguelph.ca/index.php/irss/article/view/5801 |journal=International Review of Scottish Studies |volume=45 |pages=54–99 |doi=10.21083/irss.v45i0.5801 |s2cid=229451135 |via=www.irss.uoguelph.ca |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10037/20205 | issn = 1923-5755}}</ref>

James became concerned with the threat posed by witches and wrote ''[[Daemonologie]]'' in 1597, a tract inspired by his personal involvement that opposed the practice of witchcraft and that provided background material for Shakespeare's ''[[Macbeth]]''.{{Sfn|Keay|Keay|1994|p=556}}{{Sfn|Willson|1963|pp=103–105}} James personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches.{{Sfn|Keay|Keay|1994|p=556}} After 1599, his views became more sceptical.<ref>{{Harvnb|Croft|2003|p=27}}; {{Harvnb|Lockyer|1998|p=21}}; {{Harvnb|Willson|1963|pp=105, 308–309}}.</ref> In a later letter written in England to his son Henry, James congratulates the prince on "the discovery of yon little counterfeit wench. I pray God ye may be my heir in such discoveries ... most miracles now-a-days prove but illusions, and ye may see by this how wary judges should be in trusting accusations."<ref>{{Harvnb|Akrigg|1984|p=220}}; {{Harvnb|Willson|1963|p=309}}.</ref>

===Highlands and Islands===
The forcible dissolution of the [[Lordship of the Isles]] by [[James IV of Scotland]] in 1493 had led to troubled times for the western seaboard. James IV had subdued the organised military might of the [[Hebrides]], but he and his immediate successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form of governance. As a result, the 16th century became known as {{Lang|gd|linn nan creach}}, the time of raids.{{Sfn|Hunter|2000|pp=143, 166}} Furthermore, the effects of the Reformation were slow to affect the {{Lang|gd|[[Gàidhealtachd]]}}, driving a religious wedge between this area and centres of political control in the [[Central Belt]].{{Sfn|Hunter|2000|p=174}}

In 1540, [[James V]] had toured the Hebrides, forcing the [[Scottish clan chief|clan chiefs]] to accompany him. There followed a period of peace, but the clans were soon at loggerheads with one another again.{{Sfn|Thompson|1968|pp=40–41}} During James VI's reign, the citizens of the Hebrides were portrayed as lawless barbarians rather than being the cradle of Scottish Christianity and nationhood. Official documents describe the peoples of the Highlands as "void of the knawledge and feir of God" who were prone to "all kynd of barbarous and bestile cruelteis".{{Sfn|Hunter|2000|p=175}} The [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] language, spoken fluently by James IV and probably by James V, became known in the time of James VI as "Erse" or Irish, implying that it was foreign in nature. [[Parliament of Scotland|Parliament]] decided that Gaelic had become a principal cause of the Highlanders' shortcomings and sought to abolish it.<ref>{{Harvnb|Thompson|1968|pp=40–41}}; {{Harvnb|Hunter|2000|p=175}}</ref>
[[File:James VI unite 1609 662019.jpg|thumb|left|Scottish gold coin from 1609–1625]]
It was against this background that James VI authorised the "[[Gentleman Adventurers of Fife]]" to civilise the "most barbarous [[Isle of Lewis]]" in 1598. James wrote that the colonists were to act "not by agreement" with the local inhabitants, but "by extirpation of thame". Their landing at [[Stornoway]] began well, but the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by Murdoch and Neil MacLeod. The colonists tried again in 1605 with the same result, although a third attempt in 1607 was more successful.<ref>{{Harvnb|Hunter|2000|p=175}}; {{Harvnb|Rotary Club of Stornoway|1995|pp=12–13}}</ref> The [[Statutes of Iona]] were enacted in 1609, which required clan chiefs to provide support for Protestant ministers to Highland parishes; to outlaw bards; to report regularly to Edinburgh to answer for their actions; and to send their heirs to [[Lowland Scotland]], to be educated in English-speaking Protestant schools.{{Sfn|Hunter|2000|p=176}} So began a process "specifically aimed at the extirpation of the Gaelic language, the destruction of its traditional culture and the suppression of its bearers."{{Sfn|MacKinnon|1991|p=46}}

In the [[Northern Isles]], James's cousin [[Patrick Stewart, 2nd Earl of Orkney|Patrick Stewart, Earl of Orkney]], resisted the Statutes of Iona and was consequently imprisoned.<ref>{{Harvnb|Croft|2003|p=139}}; {{Harvnb|Lockyer|1998|p=179}}</ref> His natural son Robert led an unsuccessful rebellion against James, and the Earl and his son were hanged.{{Sfn|Willson|1963|p=321}} Their estates were forfeited, and the [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] islands were annexed to the Crown.{{Sfn|Willson|1963|p=321}}

===Theory of monarchy===
[[File:True Law of Free Monarchies.jpg|thumb|right|upright|James argued a theological basis for monarchy in ''[[The True Law of Free Monarchies]]''.]]

In 1597–98, James wrote ''[[The True Law of Free Monarchies]]'' and ''[[Basilikon Doron]]'' (''Royal Gift''), in which he argues a theological basis for monarchy. In the ''True Law'', he sets out the [[divine right of kings]], explaining that kings are higher beings than other men for Biblical reasons, though "the highest bench is the sliddriest to sit upon".<ref>James quoted by {{Harvnb|Willson|1963|p=131}}: "Kings are called gods by the prophetical [[King David]] because they sit upon God His throne in earth and have the count of their administration to give unto Him."</ref> The document proposes an absolutist theory of monarchy, by which a king may impose new laws by [[royal prerogative]] but must also pay heed to tradition and to God, who would "stirre up such scourges as pleaseth him, for punishment of wicked kings".{{Sfn|Croft|2003|pp=131–133}}

''Basilikon Doron'' was written as a book of instruction for the four-year-old Prince Henry and provides a more practical guide to kingship.{{Sfn|Willson|1963|p=133}} The work is considered to be well written and perhaps the best example of James's prose.<ref>{{Harvnb|Croft|2003|pp=134–135}}: "James wrote well, scattering engaging asides throughout the text"; {{Harvnb|Willson|1963|p=132}}: "''Basilikon Doron'' is the best prose James ever wrote".</ref> James's advice concerning parliaments, which he understood as merely the king's "head court", foreshadows his difficulties with the [[English House of Commons]]: "Hold no Parliaments," he tells Henry, "but for the necesitie of new Lawes, which would be but seldome".{{Sfn|Croft|2003|p=133}} In the ''True Law'', James maintains that the king owns his realm as a feudal lord owns his fief, because kings arose "before any estates or ranks of men, before any parliaments were holden, or laws made, and by them was the land distributed, which at first was wholly theirs. And so it follows of necessity that kings were the authors and makers of the laws, and not the laws of the kings."<ref>Quoted by {{Harvnb|Willson|1963|p=132}}.</ref>

===Literary patronage===
In the 1580s and 1590s, James promoted the literature of his native country. He published his treatise ''[[Reulis and Cautelis|Some Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody]]'' in 1584 at the age of 18. It was both a poetic manual and a description of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue of [[Middle Scots|Scots]], applying Renaissance principles.{{Sfn|Jack|1988|pp=126–127}} He also made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music, seeing the two in connection. One act of his reign urges the Scottish [[burgh]]s to reform and support the teaching of music in ''Sang Sculis''.<ref>See: [[Ronald Jack|Jack, R. D. S.]] (2000), "[http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ScotLit/ASLS/RDSJack.html Scottish Literature: 1603 and all that] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211125608/http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/ScotLit/ASLS/RDSJack.html |date=11 February 2012 }}", [[Association for Scottish Literary Studies]], retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref>

In furtherance of these aims, James was both patron and head of a loose circle of Scottish [[Jacobean era|Jacobean]] court poets and musicians known as the [[Castalian Band]], which included [[William Fowler (makar)|William Fowler]] and [[Alexander Montgomerie]] among others, Montgomerie being a favourite of the king.<ref>[[Ronald Jack|Jack, R. D. S.]] (1985), ''Alexander Montgomerie'', Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, pp. 1–2.</ref> James was himself a poet, and was happy to be seen as a practising member of the group.{{Sfn|Jack|1988|p=125}}

By the late 1590s, James's championing of native Scottish tradition was reduced to some extent by the increasing likelihood of his succession to the English throne.{{Sfn|Jack|1988|p=137}} [[William Alexander, 1st Earl of Stirling|William Alexander]] and other courtier poets started to [[anglicise]] their written language, and followed the king to London after 1603.<ref>Spiller, Michael (1988), "Poetry after the Union 1603–1660", in Craig, Cairns (general editor), ''The History of Scottish Literature'', Aberdeen University Press, vol. 1, pp. 141–152. Spiller points out that the trend, although unambiguous, was generally more mixed.</ref> James's role as active literary participant and patron made him a defining figure in many respects for English Renaissance poetry and drama, which reached a pinnacle of achievement in his reign,<ref>See for example Rhodes, Neil (2004), "Wrapped in the Strong Arm of the Union: Shakespeare and King James", in Maley, Willy; Murphy, Andrew (eds), ''Shakespeare and Scotland'', Manchester University Press, pp. 38–39.</ref> but his patronage of the [[Stylistics|high style]] in the Scottish tradition, which included his ancestor [[James I of Scotland]], became largely sidelined.{{Sfn|Jack|1988|pp=137–138}}