Editing Java (section)

==History==
=== ''Homo erectus'' presence ===
[[File:Pithecanthropus_erectus-PeterMaas_Naturalis.jpg|thumb|The [[syntype]] fossils of Java Man (''H. e. erectus''), at [[Naturalis]], [[Leiden]]]]
[[File:Ngandong 14. Homo erectus.jpg|thumb|Cast of Skull XI at the [[Hall of Human Origins]], Washington, D.C.]]
Fossilised remains of ''[[Homo erectus]]'', popularly known as the "[[Java Man]]", dating back 1.3&nbsp;million<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Matsu’ura |first1=Shuji |last2=Kondo |first2=Megumi |last3=Danhara |first3=Toru |last4=Sakata |first4=Sheik |last5=Iwano |first5=Hideki |last6=Hirata |first6=Takafumi |last7=Kurniawan |first7=Iwan |last8=Setiyabudi |first8=Erik |last9=Takeshita |first9=Yoshihiro |last10=Hyodo |first10=Masayuki |last11=Kitaba |first11=Ikuko |last12=Sudo Masafumi |last13=Danhara |first13=Yugo |last14=Aziz |first14=Fachroel |date=2020 |title=Age control of the first appearance datum for Javanese Homo erectus in the Sangiran area |journal=Science |volume=367 |issue=6474 |pages=210–214 |doi=10.1126/science.aau8556 |pmid=31919224 |bibcode=2020Sci...367..210M |s2cid=210131393|doi-access=free }}</ref> years were found along the banks of the [[Solo River|Bengawan Solo River]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pope |title=Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=17 |pages=43–77 |year=1988 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355 |first1=G. G.}}
cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T. |author2=Soeriaatmadja, R. E. |author3=Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |pages=309–312}}; {{cite journal |last=Pope |first=G. |title=Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=80 |issue=16 |pages=4,988–4992 |date=15 August 1983 |doi=10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988 |pmid=6410399 |pmc=384173 |bibcode=1983PNAS...80.4988P|doi-access=free}}
cited in
{{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T. |author2=Soeriaatmadja, R. E. |author3=Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |page=309}};
{{cite journal |last=de Vos |first=J. P. |author2=P. Y. Sondaar |title=Dating hominid sites in Indonesia |journal=Science Magazine |volume=266 |issue=16 |pages=4,988–4992 |date=9 December 1994 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/266/5191/1726.pdf |doi=10.1126/science.7992059 |bibcode=1994Sci...266.1726D|doi-access=free}}
cited in {{cite book |last=Whitten |first=T |author2=Soeriaatmadja, R. E. |author3=Suraya A. A. |title=The Ecology of Java and Bali |publisher=Periplus Editions Ltd |year=1996 |location=Hong Kong |page=309}}</ref>

''H. erectus'' arrived in Eurasia approximately 1.8 million years ago, in an event considered to be the first African exodus.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi=10.1111/ggi.12224| pmid=25327904| pmc=4285791| title=Geriatric issues from the standpoint of human evolution| journal=Geriatrics & Gerontology International| volume=14| issue=4| pages=731–34| year=2014| last1=Matsubayashi| first1=Kozo}}</ref> There is evidence that the Java population of ''H. erectus'' lived in an ever-wet forest habitat. More specifically the environment resembled a [[savannah]], but was likely regularly inundated ("hydromorphic savanna"). The plants found at the Trinil excavation site included grass ([[Poaceae]]), [[fern]]s, ''[[Ficus]]'', and ''[[Indigofera]]'', which are typical of lowland rainforest.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ingicco |first1=Thomas |last2=de Vos |first2=John |last3=Huffman |first3=O. Frank |year=2014| title=The Oldest Gibbon Fossil (Hylobatidae) from Insular Southeast Asia: Evidence from Trinil, (East Java, Indonesia), Lower/Middle Pleistocene |journal=[[PLOS ONE|PLoS ONE]]|volume=9|issue=6|at=e99531|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0099531|pmid=24914951 |pmc=4051846 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...999531I |doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Solo Man|''H.&nbsp;e.&nbsp;soloensis'']] was the last population of a long occupation history of the island of Java by ''H.&nbsp;erectus'', beginning 1.51 to 0.93 million years ago at the Sangiran site, continuing 540 to 430 thousand years ago at the Trinil site, and finally 117 to 108 thousand years ago at Ngandong.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zaim |first1=Yahdi |last2=Ciochon |first2=Russell L. |last3=Polanski |first3=Joshua M. |last4=Grine |first4=Frederick E. |last5=Bettis |first5=E. Arthur |last6=Rizal |first6=Yan |last7=Franciscus |first7=Robert G. |last8=Larick |first8=Roy R. |last9=Heizler |first9=Matthew |last10=Aswan |first10=null |last11=Eaves |first11=K. Lindsay |last12=Marsh |first12=Hannah E. |title=New 1.5 million-year-old Homo erectus maxilla from Sangiran (Central Java, Indonesia) |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21783226/ |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |date=2011 |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=363–376 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.04.009 |issn=1095-8606 |pmid=21783226|bibcode=2011JHumE..61..363Z }}</ref> If the date is correct for Solo Man, then they would represent a terminal population of ''H.&nbsp;erectus'' which sheltered in the last open-habitat refuges of East Asia before the rainforest takeover. Before the immigration of modern humans, Late Pleistocene Southeast Asia was also home to ''[[Homo floresiensis|H.&nbsp;floresiensis]]'' endemic to the island of [[Flores]], Indonesia, and ''[[Homo luzonensis|H.&nbsp;luzonensis]]'' endemic to the island of [[Luzon]], the Philippines. Genetic analysis of present-day Southeast Asian populations indicates the widespread dispersal of the [[Denisovans]] (a species currently recognisable only by their genetic signature) across Southeast Asia, whereupon they interbred with immigrating modern humans 45.7 and 29.8 thousand years ago.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} A 2021 genomic study indicates that, aside from the Denisovans, modern humans never interbred with any of these endemic human species, unless the offspring were [[hybrid incompatibility|unviable]] or the hybrid lineages have since died out.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}

Judging by the sheer number of specimens deposited at Ngandong at the same time, there may have been a sizeable population of ''H.&nbsp;e&nbsp;soloensis'' before the volcanic eruption which resulted in their interment, but population is difficult to approximate with certainty. This site is quite far from the north coast of Java Island, and it is not always easy to determine the position of the coastline in prehistoric times because of significant geographical changes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rizal |first1=Yan |last2=Westaway |first2=Kira E. |last3=Zaim |first3=Yahdi |last4=van den Bergh |first4=Gerrit D. |last5=Bettis |first5=E. Arthur |last6=Morwood |first6=Michael J. |last7=Huffman |first7=O. Frank |last8=Grün |first8=Rainer |last9=Joannes-Boyau |first9=Renaud |last10=Bailey |first10=Richard M. |last11=Sidarto |last12=Westaway |first12=Michael C. |last13=Kurniawan |first13=Iwan |last14=Moore |first14=Mark W. |last15=Storey |first15=Michael |date=18 December 2019 |title=Last appearance of Homo erectus at Ngandong, Java, 117,000–108,000 years ago |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1863-2 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=577 |issue=7790 |pages=381–385 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1863-2 |pmid=31853068 |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The southern coastline and estuary of the Bengawan Solo River at that time may have been different from what it is today, due to geological factors such as sedimentation, erosion, and changes in sea level over time. Currently, the estuary of the Bengawan Solo is in the Java Sea, but in prehistoric times, the river flow and estuary location may have changed. Geological and paleogeographic studies are often used to understand these changes.

=== After the arrival of modern humans ===
[[File:Sumbing, Java.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Sumbing]] surrounded by rice fields. Java's volcanic topography and rich agricultural lands are the fundamental factors in its history.]]
The island's exceptional fertility and rainfall allowed the development of wet-field rice cultivation, which required sophisticated levels of cooperation between villages. Out of these village alliances, small kingdoms developed. The chain of volcanic mountains and associated highlands running the length of Java kept its interior regions and peoples separate and relatively isolated.<ref>Ricklefs (1991), pp. 16–17.</ref> Before the advent of Islamic states and European colonialism, the rivers provided the main means of communication, although Java's many rivers are mostly short. Only the [[Brantas River|Brantas river]] and Solo river could provide long-distance communication and this way their valleys supported the centers of major kingdoms. A system of roads, permanent bridges, and toll gates is thought to have been established in Java by at least the mid-17th century. Local powers could disrupt the routes as could the wet season and road use was highly dependent on constant maintenance. Consequently, communication between Java's population was difficult.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p15" />

{{multiple image
| total_width = 230
| image1      = MET DP158751.jpg
| image2      = MET 2001 433 526 O2.jpg
| footer      = Standing warrior bronze figures, Java, {{circa}} 500 BC – 300 AD
}}
The emergence of civilization on the island of Java is often associated with the arrival of [[Aji Saka]] in 78 AD. Although Aji Saka is said to be the bearer of civilization on Java, the story received several objections and rebuttals from other historical sources. Valmiki's [[Ramayana]], made around 500 BC, records that Java already had a governmental organization long before the story:<blockquote>"Yawadwipa is decorated with seven kingdoms, gold and silver islands, rich in gold mines, and there is Cicira (cold) Mountain that touches the sky with its peak."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sastropajitno |first=Warsito |title=Rekonstruksi Sedjarah Indonesia. Zaman Hindu, Yavadvipa, Srivijaya, Sailendra |date=1958 |publisher=PT. Pertjetakan Republik Indonesia |location=Yogyakarta}}</ref>{{Rp|page=6}}</blockquote>

The Greek geographer [[Ptolemy]] called the island Iabadius or Sabadius ({{langx|grc|Ιαβαδίου or Σαβαδίου}}).<ref>{{cite book |title=Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective : R. P. Soejono's Festschrift |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dSFfD0dpdS4C |publisher=Jakarta : Indonesian Institute of Sciences, : International Center for Prehistoric and Austronesian Studies |date=2006 |page=407 |isbn=9792624996}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNgUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA237|title=Modern Times|first=H.|last=Kahler|date=December 31, 1981|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=9004061967 |via=Google Books}}</ref> Ptolemy said that the name meant the "Island of Barley" and produced a lot of grain and gold, adding that its metropolis was Argyre (Ἀργυρῆ)<ref>[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Geography/Iabadius Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Iabadius]</ref> meaning silver in Greek.<ref>[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Tamils_Eighteen_Hundred_Years_Ago/Chapter_2 The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago/Chapter 2]</ref>

According to Chinese record ''[[History of Ming|Míng Shǐ]]'', the Javanese kingdom was founded in 65 BC, or 143 years before the story of Aji Saka began.<ref>Groeneveldt, Willem Pieter (1876). "[https://archive.org/details/notes-on-the-malay-archipelago/page/n7/mode/2up?q= Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca, Compiled from Chinese Sources]". Batavia: W. Bruining.</ref>{{Rp|page=39}}

The story of Aji Saka is a Neo Javanese story. This story has not yet been found to be relevant in the Old Javanese text. This story tells of events in the Medang Kamulan kingdom in Java in the past. At that time, the king of Medang Kamulan Prabu Dewata Cengkar was replaced by Aji Saka. This story is considered as an allegory of the entry of Indians into Java. Referring to the [[Liang dynasty]] information, the Javanese kingdom was divided into two: the pre-Hinduism kingdom and the post-Hindu kingdom, which began in 78 AD.<ref name=":12"/>{{Rp||page=5 and 7}}

===Hindu–Buddhist kingdoms era===
{{See also|History of Southeast Asia#Early historical era}}
[[File:Borobudur-Temple-Park Indonesia Stupas-of-Borobudur-04.jpg|thumb|The 9th century [[Borobudur]] Buddhist [[stupa]] in Central Java]]

The [[Tarumanagara|Taruma]] kingdom of western Java existed from the 5th to the 7th centuries,<ref name=Coedes/>{{rp|83}}<ref name=Casparis1975>The dating of the Taruma kingdom is based on the palaeography of its inscriptions, which scholars agree date to the second half of the 5th century or slightly later. {{cite book |last=de Casparis |first=J.G. |title=Indonesian Palaeography: A History of Writing in Indonesia from the Beginnings to c. A.D.1500 |year=1975 |publisher=E.J. Brill}}</ref>{{rp|19}} while the [[Heling kingdom]] sent embassies to China starting in 640.<ref name=Coedes>{{cite book |last=Coedès |first=George|author-link= George Coedès |editor=Walter F. Vella |others=trans.Susan Brown Cowing |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |year=1968 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1}}</ref>{{rp|53,79}} However, the first major principality was the [[Mataram Kingdom]] that was founded in central Java at the beginning of the 8th century. Mataram's religion centered on the Hindu god [[Shiva]], and the kingdom produced some of Java's earliest Hindu temples on the [[Dieng Plateau]]. Around the 8th century, the [[Shailendra dynasty|Sailendra dynasty]] rose in [[Kedu Plain]] and become the patron of [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]]. This ancient kingdom built monuments such as the 9th century [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]] in central Java.{{cn|date=December 2023}}

Around the 10th century, the center of power shifted from central to eastern Java. The eastern Javanese kingdoms of [[Kediri Kingdom|Kediri]], [[Singhasari]] and [[Majapahit]] were mainly dependent on rice agriculture, yet also pursued trade within the Indonesian archipelago, and with China and India. Majapahit was established by [[Raden Wijaya|Wijaya]],<ref name="Coedes" />{{rp|201}} and by the end of the reign of [[Hayam Wuruk]] (r. 1350–89) it claimed sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago, although control was likely limited to Java, Bali, and Madura. Hayam Wuruk's prime minister, [[Gajah Mada]], led many of the kingdom's territorial conquests.<ref name="Coedes" />{{rp|234}} Previous Javanese kingdoms had their power based on agriculture, however, Majapahit took control of ports and shipping lanes and became Java's first commercial empire. With the death of Hayam Wuruk and the [[Spread of Islam in Indonesia|coming of Islam to Indonesia]], Majapahit went into decline.<ref name="Coedes" />{{rp|241}}

===Spread of Islam and rise of Islamic sultanates===
{{See also|Spread of Islam in Indonesia#Central and eastern Java}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2022}}

Islam became the dominant religion in Java at the end of the 16th century. During this era, the Islamic kingdoms of [[Demak Sultanate|Demak]], [[Sultanate of Cirebon|Cirebon]], and [[Banten Sultanate|Banten]] were ascendant. The [[Mataram Sultanate]] became the dominant power of central and eastern Java at the end of the 16th century. The principalities of Surabaya and Cirebon were eventually subjugated such that only Mataram and Banten were left to face the Dutch in the 17th century. [[File:Page001 img001.png|thumb|"The Champion" (Sang Agul-agul). Sketch of a Javanese soldier leader by Swiss painter J. Scheiss (1799-1844), from J.J.X. Pfyffer's 1829 "Sketches from Java," Plate VI. Photo: Leiden Univ. Library.   Sources and related content]]

===Colonial periods===
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Thee-kweekbedden zonder afdak Java TMnr 10011931.jpg|thumb|Tea plantation in Java during [[Dutch East Indies|Dutch colonial period]], in or before 1926]]

Java's contact with the European colonial powers began in 1522 with [[Luso-Sundanese padrão|a treaty]] between the Sunda kingdom and the [[Portuguese Malacca|Portuguese in Malacca]]. After its failure, the [[Portuguese colonialism in the East Indies|Portuguese presence]] was confined to Malacca and to the eastern islands.
In 1596, a four-ship expedition led by [[Cornelis de Houtman]] was the first Dutch contact with Indonesia.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500–1700 |author=Ames, Glenn J. |year=2008 |page=99}}</ref> By the end of the 18th century the Dutch had extended their influence over the sultanates of the interior through the [[Dutch East India Company in the Malay Archipelago|Dutch East India Company in Indonesia]]. Internal conflict prevented the Javanese from forming effective alliances against the Dutch. Remnants of the Mataram survived as the Surakarta (Solo) and Yogyakarta principalities. Javanese kings claimed to rule with divine authority and the Dutch helped them to preserve remnants of a Javanese aristocracy by confirming them as regents or district officials within the colonial administration.

Java's major role during the early part of the colonial period was as a producer of rice. In spice-producing islands like [[Banda Islands|Banda]], rice was regularly imported from Java, to supply the deficiency in means of subsistence.<ref>{{cite book |last=St. John |first=Horace Stebbing Roscoe |title=The Indian Archipelago: its history and present state, Volume 1 |publisher=Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans |year=1853 |page=[https://archive.org/details/indianarchipela02johngoog/page/n183 137] |url=https://archive.org/details/indianarchipela02johngoog}}</ref>

[[File:The British Occupation of Java SE6050.jpg|thumb|left|British Occupation of Java; men of the Bengal Sappers and Miners burn houses in the village of Bekasi as a reprisal for the murder of five members of the Royal Air Force and twenty Maharatta riflemen whose Dakota transport aircraft crash-landed near the village.]]

During the [[Napoleonic wars]] in Europe, the [[Netherlands]] fell to [[France]], as did its colony in the [[East Indies]]. During the short-lived [[Herman Willem Daendels|Daendels]] administration, as French proxy rule on Java, the construction of the [[Great Post Road]] was commenced in 1808. The road, spanning from [[Anyer]] in Western Java to Panarukan in East Java, served as a military supply route and was used in defending Java from British invasion.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ekspedisi Anjer-Panaroekan, Laporan Jurnalistik Kompas |publisher=Pnerbit Buku Kompas, PT Kompas Media Nusantara, Jakarta Indonesia |date=November 2008 |pages=1–2 |isbn=978-979-709-391-4}}</ref> In 1811, Java was [[Invasion of Java (1811)|captured by the British]], becoming a possession of the [[British Empire]], and Sir [[Stamford Raffles]] was appointed as the island's governor. In 1816, under the governorship of [[John Fendall Jr.|John Fendall]], Java was returned to the Dutch as per the terms of the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Treaty of Paris]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Atkins |first=James |title=The Coins And Tokens of the Possessions And Colonies of the British Empire |url=https://archive.org/details/coinstokensofpos1889jame |year=1889<!-- |location=Quaritch, Bernard--> |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/coinstokensofpos1889jame/page/213 213] |publisher=Bernard Quaritch}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hannigan |first=Tim |title=Raffles and the British invasion of Java |publisher=Singapore: Monsoon Books Pte Ltd. |year=2012 |isbn=978-981-4358-85-9 |edition=4th |pages=229}}</ref>

In 1815, there may have been five million people in Java.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/301673/Java |title=Java (island, Indonesia) |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=31 January 2019}}</ref> In the second half of the 18th century, population spurts began in districts along the north-central coast of Java, and in the 19th century population grew rapidly across the island. Factors for the great population growth include the impact of Dutch colonial rule including the imposed end to civil war in Java, the increase in the area under rice cultivation, and the introduction of food plants such as [[cassava]] and [[maize]] that could sustain populations that could not afford rice.<ref>Taylor (2003), p. 253.</ref> Others attribute the growth to the taxation burdens and increased expansion of employment under the [[Cultivation System]] to which couples responded by having more children in the hope of increasing their families’ ability to pay tax and buy goods.<ref>Taylor (2003), pp. 253–254.</ref> [[Cholera]] claimed 100,000 lives in Java in 1820.<ref>{{cite book |first=Joseph Patrick |last=Byrne |title=Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Pvi-ksuKFIC&pg=PA99 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2008 |page=99 |isbn=978-0-313-34102-1 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

[[File:The Allied Occupation of Java, 1945 SE4857.jpg|thumb|Japanese prepare to discuss surrender terms with British-allied forces in Java, 1945.]]

The advent of trucks and railways where there had previously only been buffalo and carts, telegraph systems, and more coordinated distribution systems under the colonial government all contributed to famine elimination in Java, and in turn, population growth. There were no significant famines in Java from the 1840s through to the [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|Japanese occupation]] in the 1940s.<ref name="Taylor 2003, p. 254">Taylor (2003), p. 254.</ref> However, other sources claimed the Dutch's Cultivation system is linked to famines and epidemics in the 1840s, firstly in [[Cirebon]] and then [[Central Java]], as cash crops such as indigo and sugar had to be grown instead of rice.

===Independence===
{{main|Indonesian National Awakening}}

[[Indonesia]]n nationalism first took hold in Java in the early 20th century, and [[Indonesian National Revolution|the struggle to secure the country's independence]] following [[World War II]] was centered in Java. In 1949, Indonesian independence was recognized.