Editing Laurel forest (section)

== Ecoregions ==
Laurel forests occur in small areas where their particular climatic requirements prevail, in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Inner laurel forest ecoregions, a related and distinct community of [[vascular plant]]s, evolved millions of years ago on the supercontinent of [[Gondwana]], and species of this community are now found in several separate areas of the [[Southern Hemisphere]], including southern [[South America]], southernmost [[Africa]], [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]] and [[Biodiversity of New Caledonia|New Caledonia]]. Most Laurel forest species are evergreen, and occur in tropical, subtropical, and mild temperate regions and [[cloud forest]]s of the northern and southern hemispheres, in particular the [[Macaronesia]]n islands, southern [[Japan]], [[Madagascar]], [[New Caledonia]], [[Tasmania]], and central [[Chile]], but they are pantropical, and for example in Africa they are endemic to [[Congo (area)|the Congo region]], [[Cameroon]], [[Sudan]], [[Tanzania]], and [[Uganda]], in lowland forest and [[Afromontane]] areas.
Since laurel forests are archaic populations that diversified as a result of isolation on islands and tropical mountains, their presence is a key to dating climatic history.{{cn|date=July 2023}}

=== East Asia ===
[[File:塔魔巴之起霧的樹林.jpg|thumb|[[Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests|Subtropical evergreen forests]] of [[Taiwan]]]]
Laurel forests are common in subtropical eastern Asia, and form the climax vegetation in far southern Japan, [[Taiwan]], southern China, the mountains of [[Indochina]], and the eastern [[Himalayas]]. In southern China, laurel forest once extended throughout the Yangtze Valley and Sichuan Basin from the [[East China Sea]] to the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. The northernmost laurel forests in East Asia occur at 39°&nbsp;N. on the Pacific coast of Japan. Altitudinally, the forests range from sea-level up to 1000 metres in warm-temperate Japan, and up to 3000 metres elevation in the subtropical mountains of Asia.<ref name="Tagawa, Hideo 1995" /> Some forests are dominated by [[Lauraceae]], while in others evergreen laurophyll trees of the beech family ([[Fagaceae]]) are predominant, including ring-cupped oaks (''[[Quercus]]'' subgenus ''Cyclobalanopsis''), chinquapin (''[[Castanopsis]]'') and tanoak (''[[Lithocarpus]]'').<ref name="Box, Elgene O. 1998" /> Other characteristic plants include ''[[Schima]]'' and ''[[Camellia]]'', which are members of the tea family ([[Theaceae]]), as well as [[magnolia]]s, [[bamboo]], and [[rhododendron]]s.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im0118|name=Jian Nan subtropical evergreen forests |access-date=April 8, 2011}}</ref> These subtropical forests lie between the temperate deciduous and conifer forests to the north and the subtropical/tropical monsoon forests of Indochina and India to the south.

Associations of Lauraceous species are common in broadleaved forests; for example, ''[[Litsea]]'' spp., ''[[Persea odoratissima]], [[Persea duthiei]],'' etc., along with such others as ''[[Engelhardia spicata]],'' tree rhododendron (''[[Rhododendron arboreum]]''), ''[[Lyonia ovalifolia]],'' wild Himalayan pear (''[[Pyrus pashia]]''), sumac (''[[Rhus]]'' spp.), Himalayan maple (''[[Acer oblongum]]''), box myrtle (''[[Myrica esculenta]]''), ''[[Magnolia]]'' spp., and birch (''[[Betula]]'' spp.). Some other common trees and large shrub species of subtropical forests are ''[[Semecarpus anacardium]], [[Crateva unilocularis]], [[Trewia nudiflora]], [[Premna interrupta]]'', Vietnam elm (''[[Ulmus lancifolia]]''), ''[[Ulmus chumlia]], [[Glochidion velutinum]]'', beautyberry (''[[Callicarpa arborea]]''), Indian mahogany (''[[Toona ciliata]]''), fig tree (''[[Ficus]]'' spp.), ''[[Mahosama similicifolia]], [[Trevesia palmata]],'' brushholly (''[[Xylosma longifolium]]''), false nettle (''[[Boehmeria rugulosa]]''), ''[[Heptapleurum venulosum]], [[Casearia graveilens]], [[Actinodaphne reticulata]], [[Sapium insigne]]'', Nepalese alder (''[[Alnus nepalensis]]''), marlberry (''[[Ardisia thyrsiflora]]''), holly (''[[Ilex]]'' spp), ''[[Macaranga pustulata]], [[Trichilia cannoroides]],'' hackberry (''[[Celtis tetrandra]]''), ''[[Wenlendia puberula]], [[Saurauia nepalensis]],'' ring-cupped oak (''[[Quercus glauca]]''), ''[[Ziziphus incurva]], [[Camellia kissi]], [[Hymenodictyon flaccidum]], [[Maytenus thomsonii]]'', winged prickly ash (''[[Zanthoxylum armatum]]''), ''[[Eurya acuminata]]'', matipo (''[[Myrsine semiserrata]]''), ''[[Sloanea tomentosa]], [[Hydrangea aspera]], [[Symplocos]]'' spp., and ''[[Cleyera]]'' spp.

In the temperate zone, the cloud forest between 2,000 and 3,000&nbsp;m altitude supports broadleaved evergreen forest dominated by plants such as ''[[Quercus lamellosa]]'' and ''[[Quercus semecarpifolia|Q. semecarpifolia]]'' in pure or mixed stands. ''[[Lindera]]'' and ''Litsea'' species, Himalayan hemlock (''[[Tsuga dumosa]]''), and ''Rhododendron'' spp. are also present in the upper levels of this zone. Other important species are ''[[Magnolia campbellii]], [[Michelia doltsopa]],'' andromeda (''[[Pieris ovalifolia]]''), ''[[Daphniphyllum himalense]], [[Acer campbellii]], [[Acer pectinatum]]'', and ''[[Sorbus cuspidata]]'', but these species do not extend toward the west beyond central Nepal. Nepalese alder (''Alnus nepalensis''), a pioneer tree species, grows gregariously and forms pure patches of forests on newly exposed slopes, in gullies, beside rivers, and in other moist places.

The common forest types of this zone include ''Rhododendron arboreum, [[Rhododendron barbatum]], [[Lyonia (plant)|Lyonia]]'' spp., ''[[Pieris formosa]]; [[Tsuga dumosa]]'' forest with such deciduous taxa as maple (''[[Acer (plant)|Acer]]'') and ''Magnolia''; deciduous mixed broadleaved forest of ''Acer campbellii, Acer pectinatum, Sorbus cuspidata'', and ''[[Magnolia campbellii]]''; mixed broadleaved forest of ''Rhododendron arboreum, Acer campbellii, [[Symplocos ramosissima]]'' and Lauraceae.

This zone is habitat for many other important tree and large shrub species such as pindrow fir (''[[Abies pindrow]]''), East Himalayan fir (''[[Abies spectabilis]]''), ''Acer campbellii, Acer pectinatum,'' Himalayan birch (''[[Betula utilis]]''), ''[[Betula alnoides]],'' boxwood (''[[Buxus rugulosa]]''), Himalayan flowering dogwood (''[[Cornus capitata]]''), hazel (''[[Hazel|Corylus ferox]]''), ''[[Deutzia staminea,]]'' spindle (''[[Euonymus tingens]]''), Siberian ginseng (''[[Acanthopanax cissifolius]]''), ''[[Coriaria terminalis]]'' ash (''[[Fraxinus macrantha]]''), ''[[Dodecadenia grandiflora]], [[Eurya cerasifolia]], [[Hydrangea heteromala]], [[Ilex dipyrena]]'', privet (''[[privet|Ligustrum]]'' spp.), ''[[Litsea elongata]]'', common walnut (''[[Juglans regia]]''), ''[[Lichelia doltsopa]], [[Myrsine capitallata]], [[Neolitsea umbrosa]],'' mock-orange (''[[Philadelphus tomentosus]]''), sweet olive (''[[Osmanthus fragrans]]''), Himalayan bird cherry (''[[Prunus cornuta]]''), and ''[[Viburnum continifolium]]''.

In ancient times, laurel forests (''shoyojurin'') were the predominant vegetation type in the [[Taiheiyo evergreen forests]] ecoregion of Japan, which encompasses the mild temperate climate region of southeastern Japan's Pacific coast. There were three main types of evergreen broadleaf forests, in which ''Castanopsis'', ''[[Machilus]]'', or ''Quercus'' predominated. Most of these forests were logged or cleared for cultivation and replanted with faster-growing [[conifer]]s, like [[pine]] or [[hinoki]], and only a few pockets remain.<ref>Karan, Pradyumna Prasad (2005). ''Japan in the 21st century: environment, economy, and society''. University Press of Kentucky, Lexington.{{ISBN|978-0-8131-2342-4}}. p. 25.</ref>

==== Laurel forest ecoregions in East Asia ====
* [[Changjiang Plain evergreen forests]] ([[China]])
* [[Chin Hills–Arakan Yoma montane forests]] ([[Myanmar]])
* [[Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests]] ([[Bhutan]], [[India]], [[Nepal]])
* [[Guizhou Plateau broadleaf and mixed forests]] ([[China]])
* [[Jiang Nan subtropical evergreen forests]] ([[China]])
* [[Nihonkai evergreen forests]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Northern Annamites rain forests]] ([[Laos]], [[Vietnam]])
* [[Northern Indochina subtropical forests]] (China, Laos, Myanmar, [[Thailand]], Vietnam)
* [[Northern Triangle subtropical forests]] (Myanmar)
* [[South China–Vietnam subtropical evergreen forests]] (China, Vietnam, Hong Kong, Macau)
* [[Southern Korea evergreen forests]] ([[South Korea]])
* [[Taiheiyo evergreen forests]] (Japan)
* [[Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests]] ([[Taiwan]])

=== Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines ===
Laurel forests occupy the humid tropical highlands of the [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Greater Sunda Islands]], and Philippines above {{cvt|1000|m}} elevation. The flora of these forests is similar to that of the warm-temperate and subtropical laurel forests of East Asia, including oaks ''([[Quercus]])'', tanoak ''([[Lithocarpus]])'', chinquapin ''([[Castanopsis]])'', Lauraceae, [[Theaceae]], and [[Clethraceae]].

[[Epiphyte]]s, including orchids, ferns, moss, lichen, and liverworts, are more abundant than in either temperate laurel forests or the adjacent lowland tropical rain forests. [[Myrtaceae]] are common at lower elevations, and conifers and rhododendrons at higher elevations. These forests are distinct in species composition from the lowland tropical forests, which are dominated by [[Dipterocarp]]s and other tropical species.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im0103|name=Borneo montane rain forests |access-date=June 4, 2011}}</ref>

==== Laurel forest ecoregions of Sundaland, Wallacea, and the Philippines ====
* [[Borneo montane rain forests]]
* [[Eastern Java–Bali montane rain forests]]
* [[Luzon rainforest#Montane forest|Luzon montane rain forests]]
* [[Mindanao montane rain forests]]
* [[Peninsular Malaysian montane rain forests]]
* [[Sulawesi montane rain forests]]
* [[Sumatran montane rain forests]]
* [[Western Java montane rain forests]]

=== Macaronesia and the Mediterranean Basin ===
{{Main|Laurisilva of Madeira}}
Laurel forests are found in the islands of [[Macaronesia]] in the eastern Atlantic, in particular the [[Azores]], [[Madeira Islands]], and [[Canary Islands]] from 400 to 1200&nbsp;metres elevation. Trees of the genera ''[[Apollonias]]'' ([[Lauraceae]]), ''[[Ocotea]]'' ([[Lauraceae]]), ''[[Persea]]'' ([[Lauraceae]]), ''[[Clethra]]'' ([[Clethraceae]]), ''[[Dracaena (plant)|Dracaena]]'' ([[Asparagaceae]]), ''[[Picconia]]'' ([[Oleaceae]]) and ''[[Heberdenia]]'' ([[Primulaceae]]) are characteristic.<ref name="Madeira Laurel Forest">[http://www.madeirabirds.com/madeira_laurel_forest Madeira Laurel Forest], Madeira Wind Birds 2005</ref> The [[Garajonay National Park]], on the island of [[La Gomera]] and the Laurisilva in the [[Madeira Island]] were designated [[World Heritage sites]] by [[UNESCO]] in 1986 and 1999, respectively. They are considered the best remaining examples of the Atlantic laurel forest, due to their intact nature.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sziemer |first1=P. |title=Madeira's natural history in a nutshell |publisher=Francisco Ribeiro & Filhos Lda |date=2000 |location=Funchal, Portugal}}</ref> The paleobotanical record of the island of Madeira reveals that laurisilva forests have existed on this island for at least 1.8&nbsp;million years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Góis-Marques |first1=Carlos A. |last2=Madeira |first2=José |last3=Menezes de Sequeira |first3=Miguel |title=Inventory and review of the Mio–Pleistocene São Jorge flora (Madeira Island, Portugal): palaeoecological and biogeographical implications |journal=Journal of Systematic Palaeontology |volume=16 |issue=2 |date=7 February 2017 |pages=159–177 |doi=10.1080/14772019.2017.1282991 |hdl=10400.13/4191 |s2cid=132935444|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Around 50 million years ago, during the [[Paleocene]], Europe took the form of a set of large islands spread through what was the [[Tethys Ocean|Tethys Sea]]. The climate was wet and [[Tropical climate|tropical]] with monsoon summer rains.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uriarte |first1=A. |title=Historia del clima de la Tierra |publisher=Servicio Central de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco |location=Bilbao, Spain}}</ref> Trees of the laurel and [[Fagaceae]] family ([[Quercus|oaks]] with lauroid-shape leaves and [[Castanopsis]]) were common along several species of ferns.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mai |first1=D.H. |title=Development and regional differentiation of the European vegetation during the Tertiary |journal=[[Plant Systematics and Evolution]] |date=1989 |volume=162 |issue=1–4 |pages=79–91|doi=10.1007/BF00936911 |s2cid=25109937 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barrón |first1=E. |last2=Peyrot |first2=D. |title=La vegetación forestal en el Terciario. Paleoambientes y cambio climático (ed. by J. Carrión, S. Fernández and N. Fuentes) |date=2006 |pages=56–77 |publisher=Fundación Séneca/Agencia de Ciencia y Tecnología de la Región de Murcia |location=Murcia}}</ref> Around the [[Eocene]], the planet began cooling, ultimately leading to the [[Pleistocene]] glaciations. This progressively deteriorated the Paleotropical flora of Europe, which went extinct in the late [[Pliocene]]. Some of these species went globally extinct (e.g. laurophyll ''Quercus''), others survived in the Atlantic islands (e.g. ''[[Ocotea]]''), or in other continents (e.g. ''[[Magnolia]]'', ''[[Liquidambar]]'') and some adapted to the cooler and drier climate of Europe and persisted as relicts in places with high mean annual precipitation or in particular river basins, such as sweet bay ''([[Laurus nobilis]])'' and European holly ''([[Ilex aquifolium]])'', which are fairly widespread around the Mediterranean basin.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fernández-Palacios |first1=José María |last2=Nascimento |first2=Lea de |last3=Otto |first3=Rüdiger |last4=Delgado |first4=Juan D. |last5=García-del-Rey |first5=Eduardo |last6=Arévalo |first6=José Ramón |last7=Whittaker |first7=Robert J. |title=A reconstruction of Palaeo-Macaronesia, with particular reference to the long-term biogeography of the Atlantic island laurel forests |journal=Journal of Biogeography |date=2011 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=226–246 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02427.x |s2cid=86477003 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2699.2010.02427.x |access-date=5 January 2022 |language=en |issn=1365-2699|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Descendants of these species can be found today in Europe, throughout the Mediterranean, especially in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and the southern [[Black Sea|Black Sea Basin]]. The most important is [[Hedera|ivy]], a climber or vine that is well represented in most of Europe, where it spread again after the glaciations. The portuguese laurel cherry (''[[Prunus lusitanica]]'') is the only tree that survives as a relict in some [[Iberian peninsula|Iberian]] riversides, especially in the western part of the peninsula. In other cases, the presence of Mediterranean laurel (''[[Laurus nobilis]]'') provides an indication of the previous existence of laurel forest. This species survives natively in [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[Italy]], [[Greece]], the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands. The [[Myrtaceae|myrtle]] spread through North Africa. [[Tree heath]] ''(Erica arborea)'' grows in southern Europe, but without reaching the dimensions observed in the temperate evergreen forest of Macaronesia or North Africa. The broad-leaved ''[[Rhododendron ponticum]] baeticum'' and/or ''[[Rhamnus frangula]] baetica'' still persist in humid microclimates, such as stream valleys, in the provinces of [[Cádiz (province)|Cádiz]] and [[Málaga (province)|Málaga]] in [[Spain]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/medioambiente/portal/web/ventanadelvisitante/detalle-buscador-mapa/-/asset_publisher/Jlbxh2qB3NwR/content/los-alcornocales-8/255035 |title=Parque Natural Los Alcornocales |publisher=[[Junta de Andalucía]] |website=juntadeandalucia.es |language=es-ES |access-date=2021-12-14}}</ref> in the Portuguese [[Serra de Monchique]], and the [[Rif Mountains]] of [[Morocco]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats |year=2007 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/legislation/habitatsdirective/docs/2007_07_im.pdf}}</ref>{{Verify source|date=July 2013}} The [[Parque Natural de Los Alcornocales]] has the biggest and best preserved relicts of Laurisilva in [[Western Europe]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pérez Latorre |first1=Andrés Vicente |last2=Galán de Mera |first2=Antonio |last3=Navas |first3=Patricia |last4=Navas |first4=David |last5=Gil |first5=Yolanda |last6=Cabezudo |first6=Baltasar |title=DATOS SOBRE LA FLORA Y VEGETACIÓN DEL PARQUE NATURAL DE LOS ALCORNOCALES (CÁDIZ-MÁLAGA, ESPAÑA) |url=http://www.biolveg.uma.es/abm/Volumenes/vol24/24_PerezGalanNavas.pdf |journal=Acta Botanica Malacitana |volume=24 |date=1999 |pages=133–184 |publisher=[[University of Málaga]]|doi=10.24310/abm.v24i0.8523 }}</ref>

Although the Atlantic laurisilva is more abundant in the Macaronesian archipelagos, where the weather has fluctuated little since the [[Tertiary]], there are small representations and some species contribution to the oceanic and Mediterranean ecoregions of Europe, [[Asia minor]] and west and north of Africa, where microclimates in the coastal mountain ranges form inland "islands" favorable to the persistence of laurel forests. In some cases these were genuine islands in the Tertiary, and in some cases simply areas that remained ice-free. When the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] reclosed, the species repopulated toward the Iberian Peninsula to the north and were distributed along with other African species, but the seasonally drier and colder climate, prevented them reaching their previous extent. In Atlantic Europe, subtropical vegetation is interspersed with taxa from Europe and North Africa in bioclimatic enclaves such as the Serra de Monchique, [[Sintra]], and the coastal mountains from [[Cadiz]] to [[Algeciras]]. In the Mediterranean region, remnant laurel forest is present on some islands of the [[Aegean Sea]], on the [[Black Sea]] coast of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Turkey]], and the [[Caspian Sea]] coast of [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Iran]], including the ''[[Castanopsis]]'' and true ''laurus'' forests, associated with ''[[Prunus laurocerasus]]'', and conifers such as ''[[Taxus baccata]]'', ''[[Cedrus atlantica]]'', and ''[[Abies pinsapo]]''.

In Europe the laurel forest has been badly damaged by timber harvesting, by fire (both accidental and deliberate to open fields for crops), by the introduction of exotic animal and plant species that have displaced the original cover, and by replacement with arable fields, exotic timber plantations, cattle pastures, and [[golf course]]s and tourist facilities. Most of the [[biota (ecology)|biota]] is in serious danger of extinction. The laurel forest flora is usually strong and vigorous and the forest regenerates easily; its decline is due to external forces.{{Cn|date=March 2025}}

==== Laurel forest ecoregions of Macaronesia ====
* [[Azores temperate mixed forests]]
* [[Canary Islands dry woodlands and forests]]
* [[Madeira evergreen forests]]

=== Nepal ===
In the Himalayas, in Nepal, subtropical forest consists of species such as ''[[Schima wallichii]]'', ''[[Castanopsis indica]]'', and ''[[Castanopsis tribuloides]]'' in relatively humid areas. Some common forest types in this region include ''Castanopsis tribuloides'' mixed with ''[[Schima wallichi]], [[Rhododendron]]'' spp., ''[[Lyonia ovalifolia]], [[Eurya acuminata]]'', and ''[[Quercus glauca]]''; ''Castanopsis''-Laurales forest with ''[[Symplocas]]'' spp.; ''[[Alnus nepalensis]]'' forests; ''[[Schima wallichii]]-[[Castanopsis indica]]'' hygrophile forest; ''Schima-Pinus'' forest; ''[[Pinus roxburghii]]'' forests with ''[[Phyllanthus emblica]]. [[Semicarpus anacardium]]'', ''[[Rhododendron arboreum]]'' and ''[[Lyoma ovalifolia]]; [[Schima]]-[[Lagerstroemia parviflora]]'' forest, ''[[Quercus lamellosa]]'' forest with ''[[Quercus lanata]]'' and ''[[Quercus glauca]]''; ''[[Castanopsis]]'' forests with ''[[Castanopsis hystrix]]'' and Lauraceae.{{Cn|date=March 2025}}

=== Southern India ===
{{Main|North Western Ghats montane rain forests|South Western Ghats montane rain forests}}
Laurel forests are also prevalent in the montane rain forests of the [[Western Ghats]] in southern [[India]].

=== Sri Lanka ===
{{Main|Sri Lanka montane rain forests}}
Laurel forest occurs in the montane rain forest of [[Sri Lanka montane rain forests|Sri Lanka]].<ref name="Tagawa, Hideo 1995" />

=== Africa ===
{{Main|Afromontane}}
The [[Afromontane]] laurel forests describe the plant and animal species common to the mountains of [[Africa]] and the southern [[Arabian Peninsula]]. The afromontane regions of Africa are discontinuous, separated from each other by lowlands, resembling a series of islands in distribution. Patches of forest with Afromontane floristic affinities occur all along the mountain chains. Afromontane communities occur above {{cvt|1500–2000|m}} elevation near the equator, and as low as {{cvt|300|m}} elevation in the [[Knysna-Amatole montane forests]] of [[South Africa]]. Afromontane forests are cool and humid. Rainfall is generally greater than {{cvt|700|mm/year|in/year}}, and can exceed {{cvt|2000|mm}} in some regions, occurring throughout the year or during winter or summer, depending on the region. Temperatures can be extreme at some of the higher altitudes, where snowfalls may occasionally occur.

In [[Subsaharan Africa]], laurel forests are found in the [[Cameroon Highlands forests]] along the border of [[Nigeria]] and [[Cameroon]], along the East African Highlands, a long chain of mountains extending from the [[Ethiopian Highlands]] around the [[African Great Lakes]] to [[South Africa]], in the Highlands of [[Madagascar]], and in the montane zone of the [[São Tomé, Príncipe, and Annobón forests]]. These scattered highland laurophyll forests of Africa are similar to one another in species composition (known as the [[Afromontane]] flora), and distinct from the flora of the surrounding lowlands.

The main species of the Afromontane forests include the broadleaf canopy trees of genus ''[[Beilschmiedia]]'', with ''[[Apodytes dimidiata]]'', ''[[Ilex mitis]]'', ''[[Nuxia congesta]]'', ''[[Nuxia floribunda|N. floribunda]]'', ''[[Kiggelaria africana]]'', ''[[Prunus africana]]'', ''[[Rapanea melanophloeos]]'', ''[[Halleria lucida]]'', ''[[Ocotea bullata]]'', and ''[[Xymalos monospora]]'', along with the emergent conifers ''[[Podocarpus latifolius]]'' and ''[[Afrocarpus falcatus]]''. Species composition of the Subsaharan laurel forests differs from that of Eurasia. Trees of the [[lauraceae|Laurel family]] are less prominent, limited to ''[[Ocotea]]'' or ''[[Beilschmiedia]]'' due to exceptional [[Biology|biological]] and [[Paleoecology|paleoecological]] interest and the enormous [[biodiversity]] mostly but with many endemic species, and the members of the beech family (Fagaceae) are absent.<ref name="Tagawa, Hideo 1995" /> <!-- This last sentence is unclear. -->

Trees can be up to {{cvt|30|or|40|m|ft}} tall and distinct strata of emergent trees, canopy trees, and shrub and herb layers are present. Tree species include: Real Yellowwood (''[[Podocarpus latifolius]]''), Outeniqua Yellowwood (''[[Podocarpus falcatus]]''), White Witchhazel (''[[Trichocladus ellipticus]]''), ''[[Rhus chirendensis]]'', ''[[Curtisia dentata]]'', ''[[Calodendrum capense]]'', ''[[Apodytes dimidiata]]'', ''[[Halleria lucida]]'', ''[[Ilex mitis]]'', ''[[Kiggelaria africana]]'', ''[[Nuxia floribunda]]'', ''[[Xymalos monospora]]'', and ''[[Ocotea bullata]]''. Shrubs and climbers are common and include: Common Spikethorn (''[[Maytenus heterophylla]]''), Cat-thorn (''[[Scutia myrtina]]''), Numnum (''[[Carissa bispinosa]]''), ''[[Secamone alpinii]]'', ''[[Canthium ciliatum]]'', ''[[Rhoicissus tridentata]]'', ''[[Zanthoxylum capense]]'', and ''[[Burchellia bubalina]]''. In the undergrowth grasses, herbs and ferns may be locally common: Basketgrass (''[[Oplismenus hirtellus]]''), Bushman Grass (''[[Stipa dregeana]]'' var. ''elongata''), Pigs-ears (''[[Centella asiatica]]''), ''[[Cyperus albostriatus]]'', ''[[Polypodium polypodioides]]'', ''[[Polystichum tuctuosum]]'', ''[[Streptocarpus rexii]]'', and ''[[Plectranthus]]'' spp. Ferns, shrubs and small trees such as [[Cape Beech]] (''[[Rapanea melanophloeos]]'') are often abundant along the forest edges.{{Cn|date=March 2025}}

===Southeast United States===
{{unreferenced section|date=November 2013}}
According to the recent study by Box and Fujiwara (Evergreen Broadleaved Forests of the Southeastern United States: Preliminary Description), laurel forests occur in patches in the southeastern United States from southeast [[Virginia]] southward to [[Florida]], and west to [[Texas]], mostly along the coast and coastal plain of the Gulf and south Atlantic coast. In the southeastern United States, evergreen [[Hammock (ecology)]] (i.e. topographically induced forest islands) contain many laurel forests. These laurel forests occur mostly in moist depression and floodplains, and are found in moist environments. In many portions of the coastal plain, a low-lying mosaic topography of white sand, silt, and [[limestone]] (mostly in [[Florida]]), separate these laurel forests. Frequent fire is also thought to be responsible for the disjointed geography of laurel forests across the coastal plain of the southeastern United States.

Despite being located in a humid climate zone, much of the broadleaf Laurel forests in the Southeast USA are semi-[[sclerophyll]] in character. The semi-sclerophyll character is due (in part) to the sandy soils and often periodic semi-arid nature of the climate. As one moves south into central Florida, as well as far southern Texas and the Gulf Coastal margin of the southern United States, the sclerophyll character slowly declines and more tree species from the tropics (specifically, the [[Caribbean]] and [[Mesoamerica]]) increase as the temperate species decline. As such, the southeastern laurel forests gives way to a mixed landscape of [[tropical savanna]] and [[tropical rainforest]].

There are several different broadleaved evergreen canopy trees in the laurel forests of the southeastern United States. In some areas, the evergreen forests are dominated by species of Live oak (''[[Quercus virginiana]]''), Laurel oak (''[[Quercus hemisphaerica]]''), southern magnolia (''[[Magnolia grandiflora]]''), red bay (''[[Persea borbonia]]''), cabbage palm (''[[Sabal palmetto]]''), and sweetbay magnolia (''[[Magnolia virginiana]]''). In several areas on the barrier islands, a stunted ''[[Quercus geminata]]'' or mixed ''Q. geminata'' and ''Quercus virginiana'' forest dominates, with a dense evergreen understory of scrub palm ''[[Serenoa repens]]'' and a variety of vines, including ''[[Bignonia capreolata]]'', as well as ''[[Smilax]]'' and ''[[Vitis species]]'''. ''[[Gordonia lasianthus]]'', ''[[Ilex opaca]]'' and ''[[Osmanthus americanus]]'' also may occur as canopy co-dominant in coastal dune forests, with ''[[Cliftonia monophylla]]'' and ''[[Vaccinium arboreum]]'' as a dense evergreen understory (Box and Fujiwara 1988).

The lower [[shrub layer]] of the evergreen forests is often mixed with other evergreen species from the palm family (''[[Rhapidophyllum hystrix]]''), bush palmetto (''[[Sabal minor]]''), and saw palmetto (''[[Serenoa repens]]''), and several species in the Ilex family, including ''[[Ilex glabra]]'', [[Dahoon holly]], and [[Yaupon holly]]. In many areas, ''[[Cyrilla racemiflora]]'', ''[[Lyonia fruticosa]]'', wax myrtle ''[[Myrica]]'' is present as an evergreen understory. Several species of ''[[Yucca]]'' and ''[[Opuntia]]'' are native as well to the drier sandy coastal scrub environment of the region, including ''[[Yucca aloifolia]]'', ''[[Yucca filamentosa]]'', ''[[Yucca gloriosa]]'', and ''[[Opuntia stricta]]''.

===Ancient California===
During the [[Miocene]], oak-laurel forests were found in Central and Southern [[California]]. Typical tree species included oaks ancestral to present-day California oaks, as well as an assemblage of trees from the Laurel family, including ''[[Nectandra]]'', ''[[Ocotea]]'', ''[[Persea]]'', and ''[[Umbellularia]]''.<ref>Axelrod, Daniel I. (2000) ''A Miocene (10-12 Ma) Evergreen Laurel-Oak Forest from Carmel Valley, California.'' University of California Publications in Geological Sciences 145; April 2000. 3rd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-09839-8}}.</ref><ref>[[Michael G. Barbour]], [[Todd Keeler-Wolf]], [[Allan A. Schoenherr]] (2007). ''Terrestrial vegetation of California''. Berkeley: University of California Press, {{ISBN|978-1-282-35915-4}}, p. 56</ref> Only one native species from the Laurel family (Lauraceae), ''[[Umbellularia californica]],'' remains in California today.

There are however, several areas in Mediterranean California, as well as isolated areas of southern [[Oregon]] that have evergreen forests. Several species of evergreen ''Quercus'' forests occur, as well as a mix of evergreen scrub typical of [[Mediterranean climate]]s. Species of ''[[Notholithocarpus]]'', ''[[Arbutus menziesii]]'', and ''Umbellularia californica'' can be canopy species in several areas.{{Cn|date=March 2025}}

=== Central America ===
The laurel forest is the most common [[Central America]]n temperate evergreen cloud forest type. They are found in mountainous areas of southern [[Mexico]] and almost all Central American countries, normally more than {{cvt|1000|m}} above sea level. Tree species include evergreen oaks, members of the Laurel family, and species of ''[[Weinmannia]]'', ''[[Drimys]]'', and ''[[Magnolia]]''.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=nt0167|name=Talamancan montane forests |access-date=1 June 2011}}</ref> The cloud forest of [[Sierra de las Minas]], [[Guatemala]], is the largest in Central America. In some areas of southeastern [[Honduras]] there are cloud forests, the largest located near the border with [[Nicaragua]]. In [[Nicaragua]] the [[cloud forest]]s are found in the border zone with Honduras, and most were cleared to grow [[coffee]]. There are still some temperate evergreen hills in the north. The only cloud forest in the Pacific coastal zone of Central America is on the [[Mombacho]] volcano in Nicaragua. In [[Costa Rica]] there are laurisilvas in the "Cordillera de [[Tilarán]]" and [[Volcán Arenal]], called [[Monteverde]], also in the [[Cordillera de Talamanca]].{{Cn|date=March 2025}}

==== Laurel forest ecoregions in Mexico and Central America ====
* [[Central American montane forests]]
* [[Chiapas montane forests]]
* [[Chimalapas montane forests]]
* [[Oaxacan montane forests]]
* [[Talamancan montane forests]]
* [[Veracruz montane forests]]

=== Tropical Andes ===
[[File:Selva nublada Colonia Tovar.JPG|thumb|Yunga in [[Colonia Tovar]], [[Venezuela]]]]
The [[Yungas]] are typically evergreen forests or jungles, and multi-species, which often contain many species of the laurel forest. They occur discontinuously from [[Venezuela]] to northwestern [[Argentina]] including in [[Brazil]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Peru]], usually in the Sub-Andean Sierras. The forest relief is varied and in places where the Andes meet the Amazon, it includes steeply sloped areas. Characteristic of this region are deep ravines formed by the rivers, such as that of the [[Tarma River]] descending to the San Ramon Valley, or the [[Urubamba River]] as it passes through [[Machu Picchu]]. Many of the Yungas are degraded or are forests in recovery that have not yet reached their [[climax vegetation]].{{Cn|date=March 2025}}

=== Southeastern South America ===

The laurel forests of the region are known as the ''Laurisilva Misionera'', after Argentina's [[Misiones Province]]. The [[Araucaria moist forests]] occupy a portion of the highlands of southern Brazil, extending into northeastern Argentina. The forest canopy includes species of Lauraceae (''[[Ocotea pretiosa]]'', ''[[Ocotea catharinense|O. catharinense]]'' and ''[[Ocotea porosa|O. porosa]]''), Myrtaceae (''[[Campomanesia xanthocarpa]]''), and Leguminosae (''[[Parapiptadenia rigida]]''), with an emergent layer of the conifer Brazilian Araucaria (''[[Araucaria angustifolia]]'') reaching up to {{cvt|45|m|ft}} in height.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=nt0101|name=Araucaria moist forests |access-date=June 4, 2011}}</ref> The subtropical [[Serra do Mar coastal forests]] along the southern coast of Brazil have a tree canopy of Lauraceae and Myrtaceae, with emergent trees of Leguminaceae, and a rich diversity of [[bromeliad]]s and trees and shrubs of family [[Melastomaceae]].<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=nt0160|name=Serra do Mar coastal forests |access-date=June 4, 2011}}</ref> The inland [[Alto Paraná Atlantic forests]], which occupy portions of the Brazilian Highlands in southern Brazil and adjacent parts of Argentina and Paraguay, are semi-deciduous.{{Cn|date=March 2025}}

=== Central Chile ===
{{Main|Valdivian temperate rain forests}}

The Valdivian temperate rain forests, or ''Laurisilva Valdiviana'', occupy southern [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]] from the Pacific Ocean to the [[Andes]] between 38° and 45° latitude. Rainfall is abundant, from {{cvt|1500|to(-)|5000|mm}} according to locality, distributed throughout the year, but with some subhumid Mediterranean climate influence for 3–4 months in summer. The temperatures are sufficiently invariant and mild, with no month falling below {{cvt|5|C}}, and the warmest month below {{cvt|22|C}}.

=== Australia, New Caledonia and New Zealand ===
{{Main|Biodiversity of New Caledonia}}

Laurel forest appears on mountains of the coastal strip of New South Wales in [[Australia]], [[New Guinea]], [[New Caledonia]], [[Tasmania]], and [[New Zealand]]. The laurel forests of Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand are home to species related to those in the Valdivian laurel forests,

''[[Beilschmiedia tawa]]'' is often the dominant canopy species of the laural genus ''[[Beilschmiedia]]'' in lowland laurel forests in the [[North Island]] and the northeast of the [[South Island]], but will also often form the subcanopy in primary forests throughout the country in these areas, with [[Podocarpaceae|podocarps]]. Genus ''Beilschmiedia'' are trees and [[shrub]]s widespread in tropical [[Asia]], [[Africa]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Central America]], the [[Caribbean]], and [[South America]] as far south as [[Chile]]. In the [[Corynocarpus]] family, ''[[Corynocarpus laevigatus]]'' is sometimes called laurel of New Zealand, while ''[[Laurelia novae-zelandiae]]'' belongs to the same genus as ''[[Laurelia sempervirens]]''. The tree [[niaouli]] grows in Australia, New Caledonia, and Papua.

The [[New Guinea]] and Northern Australian ecoregions are also closely related.{{Cn|date=March 2025}}

==== New Guinea ====
The eastern end of [[Malesia]], including [[New Guinea]] and the [[Aru Islands]] of eastern Indonesia, is linked to Australia by a shallow continental shelf, and shares many [[marsupial]] mammal and bird [[taxon|taxa]] with Australia. New Guinea also has many additional elements of the Antarctic flora, including southern beech (''[[Nothofagus]]'') and [[Eucalypt]]s. New Guinea has the highest mountains in [[Malesia]], and vegetation ranges from tropical lowland forest to [[tundra]].

The highlands of New Guinea and [[New Britain]] are home to montane laurel forests, from about {{cvt|1000|to(-)|2500|m}} elevation. These forests include species typical of both Northern Hemisphere laurel forests, including ''[[Lithocarpus]], [[Ilex]],'' and Lauraceae, and Southern Hemisphere laurel forests, including Southern Beech ''[[Nothofagus]]'', ''[[Araucaria]]'', [[Podocarp]]s, and trees of the Myrtle family ([[Myrtaceae]]).<ref name="Tagawa, Hideo 1995" /><ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=aa0105|name=Central Range montane rain forests |access-date=June 4, 2011}}</ref> New Guinea and Northern Australia are closely related. Around 40 million years ago, the [[Indo-Australian Plate|Indo-Australian tectonic plate]] began to split apart from the ancient supercontinent Gondwana. As it collided with the [[Pacific Plate]] on its northward journey, the high mountain ranges of central [[New Guinea]] emerged around 5&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name="Frith">Frith, D.W., Frith, C.B. (1995). Cape York Peninsula: A Natural History. Chatswood: Reed Books Australia. Reprinted with amendments in 2006. {{ISBN|0-7301-0469-9}}.</ref> In the lee of this collision zone, the ancient rock formations of what is now [[Cape York Peninsula]] remained largely undisturbed.{{Cn|date=March 2025}}

===== Laurel forest ecoregions of New Guinea =====
The [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]] identifies several distinct montane laurel forest ecoregions on New Guinea, New Britain, and New Ireland.<ref>Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). ''Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment''. Washington, DC: Island Press. {{ISBN|978-1-55963-923-1}}.</ref>
* [[Central Range montane rain forests]]
* [[Huon Peninsula montane rain forests]]
* [[New Britain–New Ireland montane rain forests]]
* [[Northern New Guinea montane rain forests]]
* [[Vogelkop montane rain forests]]