Editing Lepontic language (section)

==Corpus==
Lepontic is known from around 140 inscriptions written in the alphabet of [[Lugano]], one of five main [[Old Italic alphabet|Northern Italic alphabets]] derived from the [[Etruscan alphabet]]. Similar scripts were used for writing the [[Raetic language|Rhaetic]] and [[Venetic]] languages and the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] [[runic alphabet]]s probably derive from a script belonging to this group.

The grouping of all inscriptions written in the alphabet of Lugano into a single language is disputed. Indeed, it was not uncommon in antiquity for a given alphabet to be used to write multiple languages. And, in fact, the alphabet of Lugano was used in the coinage of other Alpine tribes, such as the [[Salassi]], [[Salluvii]], and [[Cavares]] (Whatmough 1933, Lejeune 1971).

While many of the later inscriptions clearly appear to be written in Cisalpine Gaulish, some, including all of the older ones, are said to be in an indigenous language distinct from Gaulish and known as Lepontic. Until the publication of Lejeune 1971, this Lepontic language was regarded as a pre-Celtic language, possibly related to Ligurian (Whatmough 1933, Pisani 1964). Following Lejeune 1971, the consensus view became that Lepontic should be classified as a Celtic language, albeit possibly as divergent as [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], and in any case quite distinct from Cisalpine Gaulish (Lejeune 1971, Kruta 1991, Stifter 2008).<ref name=Kruta>{{cite book|last=Kruta|first=Venceslas|title=The Celts|year=1991|publisher=Thames and Hudson|pages=52–56}}</ref><ref name=Stifter>{{cite book|last=Stifter |first=David |title=Old Celtic Languages |date=2008 |pages=24–37 |url=http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302015510/http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_2_lepontic.pdf |archive-date=2011-03-02 |access-date=2023-07-22}}</ref> Some have gone further, considering Lepontic and Cisalpine Gaulish essentially one and the same (Eska 1998). However, an analysis of the geographic distribution of the inscriptions shows that the Cisalpine Gaulish inscriptions are later and from an area to the south of the earlier (Lepontic) inscriptions, with which they display significant differences as well as similarities.<ref name=Stifter/>

While the language is named after the tribe of the [[Lepontii]], which occupied portions of ancient [[Rhaetia]], specifically an [[Alps|Alpine]] area straddling modern [[Switzerland]] and [[Italy]] and bordering Cisalpine Gaul, the term is currently used by some Celticists (e.g. Eska 1998) to apply to all Celtic dialects of ancient Italy. This usage is disputed by those who continue to view the Lepontii as one of several indigenous pre-Roman tribes of the Alps, quite distinct from the [[Gauls]] who invaded the plains of Northern Italy in historical times.

The older Lepontic inscriptions date back to before the 5th century BC, the item from [[Castelletto Ticino]] being dated at the 6th century BC and that from [[Sesto Calende]] possibly being from the 7th century BC (Prosdocimi, 1991). The people who made these inscriptions are nowadays identified with the [[Golasecca culture]], a Celtic culture in northern Italy (De Marinis 1991, Kruta 1991 and Stifter 2008).<ref name=Kruta/><ref name=Stifter/> The extinction date for Lepontic is only inferred by the absence of later inscriptions.

===Funerary inscriptions===
These are the most common inscriptions in Lepontic, often including merely the name of the deceased, with or without the word ''pala'' "(tomb) stone." Two of the slightly longer ones are included below.

====[[Carcegna]] vase====

::''metelui maeśelalui uenia metelikna aśmina krasanikna''

Probably: "Uenia Metel-ikna [and] Aśmina Krasan-ikna [dedicate this vase] to Metelos Maeśelalos"<ref>Whatmough, J. (1933). ''The Prae-Italic Dialects of Italy'', vol. 2, "The Raetic, Lepontic, Gallic, East-Italic, Messapic and Sicel Inscriptions", Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. p. 321</ref><ref>Lejeune, M. "Documents gaulois et para-gaulois de Cisalpine" ''Études Celtiques'' 1970–71, volume 12, issue 2, pp. 73-74</ref><ref>Eds. Ball, M. J. and J. Ball (2002) ''The Celtic Language'' Routledge, p. 44</ref>

====[[Vergiate]] funeral stone====

::''pelkui pruiam teu karite iśos kalite palam''

Probably: "Iśos dedicated (? or sealed?) [this] sacred (? if ''teu'' is from *''deywo-'') ''pruiam'' (tomb?) [and] erected (?) [this] stone to/for ''Pelkos''."<ref>Whatmough, J. (1933). ''The Prae-Italic Dialects of Italy'', vol. 2, "The Raetic, Lepontic, Gallic, East-Italic, Messapic and Sicel Inscriptions", Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. p. 300</ref><ref>Lejeune, M. "Documents gaulois et para-gaulois de Cisalpine" ''Études Celtiques'' 1970–71, volume 12, issue 2, pp. 444-452</ref><ref>Eds. Ball, M. J. and J. Ball (2002) ''The Celtic Language'' Routledge, p. 44</ref>

The apparent verbal forms ''karite'' and ''kalite'' seem to show a -t- preterite, a development also seen in Gaulish. The forms may be two distinct verbs both meaning 'call (for); command, order' (Proto-Celtic *''kalyo-'' and *''galwo-'') in which case the meaning is more like, "Isos called for the sacred pruiam [to be dedicated] and ordered the stone [be erected]." On the other hand, ''karite'' may well be cognate with Gaulish ''karnite'' "erected, constructed" (further cognates in Celtic include Old Irish ''carn'' "tomb, heap of stones" whence through Scottish Gaelic the English word ''cairn'', and the Gaulish place name ''Carnuntum'').<ref>Ranko Matasovic (2006) ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Brill: Leiden, p. 191</ref>

===Dedicatory inscriptions===

====[[Ornavasso]] vase====

::''latumarui sapsutai-pe uinom naśom''

Probably: "[This] [[Naxos|Naxian]] wine [is dedicated] to Latumaros and Sapsuta"

This inscription is notable for containing the "P-Celtic" form of the Proto-Indo-European conjuctive clitic *''-k<sup>w</sup>e'' here -''pe''.<ref>Whatmough, J. (1933). ''The Prae-Italic Dialects of Italy'', vol. 2, "The Raetic, Lepontic, Gallic, East-Italic, Messapic and Sicel Inscriptions", Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press. p. 304</ref><ref>Lejeune, M. "Documents gaulois et para-gaulois de Cisalpine" ''Études Celtiques'' 1970–71, volume 12, issue 2, pp. 430-432</ref><ref>Eds. Ball, M. J. and J. Fife (2002) ''The Celtic Language'' Routledge, p. 44</ref>

====[[Prestino]] stone====
On epigraphic and archaeological grounds, this inscription is datable to about 480–450 BC.
(See image above.)

::''uvamakozis plialeθu uvltiauiopos ariuonepos sitis tetu''

Probably: "Uvamakozis dedicated (literally 'gave') to Plialethos [these] ''uvltiaviop-s'', ''arivonep-s'' [and] ''sits'' ("sacred mounds"? see note below)."<ref>Lejeune, M. "Documents gaulois et para-gaulois de Cisalpine" ''Études Celtiques'' 1970–71, volume 12, issue 2, pp. 452-462</ref><ref>Eds. Ball, M. J. and J. Fife (2002) ''The Celtic Language'' Routledge, p. 44-45</ref>

Notes:
The name ''Uvamokozis'' probably is from Proto-Indo-European *''up-mmo-g<sup>h</sup>ostis'' "having most esteemed guests", the last element developing through Proto-Celtic ''*gostis'' with further cognates in Old Church Slavonic ''gostъ'' and Gothic ''gasts''.<ref>Ranko Matasovic (2006) ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Brill: Leiden, p. 155</ref> The apparent development of PIE *''p'' to -v- here is of particular interest for understanding the development of this sound in Celtic (lost in most other branches). 

The form ''sitis'' is probably from PIE *''sēdns'' "seats" an accusative plural; compare Old Irish ''sid'' "sacred mound" from "seat (of the gods), and Latin ''sēdēs'').<ref>Ranko Matasovic (2006) ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Brill: Leiden, p. 326</ref><ref>de Hoz, Javier (1992) "Lepontic, Celtiberian, Gaulish, and the Archeological Evidence" Études celtiques vol. 29 pp. 223-240</ref><ref>Prosdocimi, Aldo L. (1986) "L'iscrizione leponzia di Prestino: Vent'anni dopo" Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie Vol.41, p.225</ref><ref>Markey, Thomas L. ; Mees, Bernard (2003) "Prestino, patrimony and the Plinys" ''Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie,'' Vol.53 (1), p.116</ref><ref>*Mees, Bernard (2008) "Early Celtic metre at Vergiate and Prestino" ''Historische Sprachforschung,'' Vol.121 (1), p.188-208</ref><ref>Roberti, Mario Mirabella "Un'iscrizione leponzio-ligure a Prestino di Como"''Arte Lombarda'', Vol. 11, No. 1 (Primo Semestre 1966), pp. 114-115</ref>

The final form ''tetu'' probably from PIE *''deh<sub>3</sub>-'' "give", seen also in Old Irish ''dorat'' "has given", Gaulish ''dede'' and Celt-Iberian ''tatuz'' on the first [[Botorrita plaque]].<ref>Marinis de, R. (1981) "Il periodo del Golasseca III A Lombardia" ''Studi archeologici'' (Inst. Univer. de Bergamo) 1. pp. 41-284</ref><ref>Ranko Matasovic (2006) ''Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic'' Brill: Leiden, p. 61</ref>