Editing Lingua franca (section)

==Examples==
{{Main|List of lingua francas}}

===Historical lingua francas===

[[File:Ephesians 2,12 - Greek atheos.jpg|thumb|[[Koine Greek]]]]

The use of lingua francas has existed since antiquity.

[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] remained the common language of a large part of Western Asia from several earlier empires, until it was supplanted in this role by [[Aramaic]].<ref>Ostler, 2005 pp. 38–40</ref><ref>Ostler, 2010 pp. 163–167</ref>

[[Sanskrit]] historically served as a lingua franca throughout the majority of South Asia.<ref>The Last Lingua Franca: English Until the Return of Babel. Nicholas Ostler. Ch.7. {{ISBN|978-0802717719}}</ref><ref>A Dictionary of Buddhism p.350 {{ISBN|0191579173}}</ref><ref>Before the European Challenge: The Great Civilizations of Asia and the Middle East p.180 {{ISBN|0791401685}}</ref> The Sanskrit language's historic presence is attested across a wide geography beyond South Asia. Inscriptions and literary evidence suggest that Sanskrit was already being adopted in Southeast Asia and Central Asia in the 1st millennium CE, through monks, religious pilgrims and merchants.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sheldon Pollock|editor=Jan E. M. Houben|title=Ideology and Status of Sanskrit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC|year=1996|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=978-90-04-10613-0|pages=197–223 with footnotes|access-date=19 March 2022|archive-date=17 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152353/https://books.google.com/books?id=_eqr833q9qYC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=William S.-Y. Wang|author-link1=William S-Y. Wang|author2=Chaofen Sun|title=The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-985633-6|pages=6–19, 203–212, 236–245|access-date=19 March 2022|archive-date=17 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152357/https://books.google.com/books?id=YqT4BQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Burrow |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Burrow |title=The Sanskrit Language |year=1973 |edition=3rd, revised |location=London |publisher=Faber & Faber |pages=63–66}}</ref>

Until the early 20th century, [[Literary Chinese]] served as both the written lingua franca and the diplomatic language in East Asia, including China, [[Korea]], [[Empire of Japan|Japan]], [[Ryūkyū Kingdom|Ryūkyū]], and [[Vietnam]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-04-28 |title=Reclaiming a Common Language {{!}} BU Today |url=https://www.bu.edu/articles/2015/reclaiming-a-common-language/ |access-date=2023-07-23 |website=Boston University |language=en}}</ref> In the early 20th century, [[vernacular written Chinese]] replaced Classical Chinese within China as both the written and spoken lingua franca for speakers of different Chinese dialects, and because of the declining power and cultural influence of China in East Asia, English has since replaced Classical Chinese as the lingua franca in East Asia.

[[Koine Greek]] was the lingua franca of the Hellenistic culture. Koine Greek<ref name=collins>{{cite Collins Dictionary|Koine
|access-date=2014-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite Dictionary.com|Koine}}</ref><ref name="mw">{{cite Merriam-Webster|Koine}}</ref> (Modern {{langx|el|Ελληνιστική Κοινή|Ellinistikí Kiní|Common Greek}}; {{IPA|el|elinistiˈci ciˈni|lang}}), also known as Alexandrian dialect, common Attic, Hellenistic, or Biblical Greek, was the [[koiné language|common supra-regional form]] of Greek spoken and written during the [[Hellenistic period]], the [[Roman Empire]] and the early [[Byzantine Empire]]. It evolved from the spread of Greek following the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]] in the fourth century BC, and served as the lingua franca of much of the Mediterranean region and the Middle East during the following centuries.<ref name="Bubenik">{{cite book|last=Bubenik|first=V.|year=2007|chapter=The rise of Koiné|editor=A. F. Christidis|title=A history of Ancient Greek: from the beginnings to late antiquity|location=Cambridge|publisher=University Press|pages=342–345}}</ref>

[[Latin]], through the power of the [[Roman Republic]], became the dominant language in [[Italy (geographical region)|Italy]] and subsequently throughout the realms of the Roman Empire. Even after the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire]], Latin was the common language of communication, science, and academia in Europe until well into the 18th century, when other regional vernaculars (including its own descendants, the Romance languages) supplanted it in common academic and political usage, and it eventually became a [[dead language]] in the modern linguistic definition.

[[Old Tamil]] was once the lingua franca for most of ancient [[Tamilakam]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. [[John Guy (historian)|John Guy]] states that Tamil was also the lingua franca for early maritime traders from India.<ref name="scroll.in">{{citation |title=Scroll.in – News. Politics. Culture. |date=6 February 2015 |url=http://scroll.in/article/704603/Step-aside%2C-Gujaratis%3A-Tamilians-were-India%27s-earliest-recorded-maritime-traders |access-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208095602/http://scroll.in/article/704603/Step-aside%2C-Gujaratis%3A-Tamilians-were-India%27s-earliest-recorded-maritime-traders |archive-date=8 February 2015 |url-status=live |publisher=scroll.in}}</ref> The language and its dialects were used widely in the state of Kerala as the major language of administration, literature and common usage until the 12th century CE.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Murthy |first1=Srinivasa |title=Essays on Indian History and culture: Felicitation volume in Honour of Professor B. Sheik Ali |pages=85–106 |year=1990 |place=New Delhi |publisher=Mittal |isbn=978-81-7099-211-0 |last2=Rao |first2=Surendra |last3=Veluthat |first3=Kesavan |last4=Bari |first4=S.A.}}</ref>

[[Māori language|Classical Māori]] is the retrospective name for the language (formed out of many dialects, albeit all mutually intelligible)<ref name="History of the Māori language">{{Cite web |title=History of the Māori language |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/maori-language-week/history-of-the-maori-language |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=nzhistory.govt.nz |language=en}}</ref> of both the North Island and the South Island for the 800 years before the [[Immigration to New Zealand|European settlement of New Zealand]].<ref>''Ko Aotearoa Tēnei, Te Taumata Tuarua - Wai 262'' (2011), Waitangi Tribunal, pp. 41</ref><ref>Preservation of Classical Maori', from An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand, edited by A.H. McLintock. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand URL: <nowiki>http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/1966/maori-language/page-10</nowiki> (accessed 16 Mar 2024)</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Belich |first=Jamie |title=Making Peoples: A History of New Zealanders |date=1996 |publisher=[[Penguin Books New Zealand]] |isbn=9781742288222 |edition=1st |location=Auckland |publication-date=1996 |pages=57,67 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=New Zealand literature - Modern Maori, Poetry, Novels {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/New-Zealand-literature/Modern-Maori-literature |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>''High or Classical Māori:'' Salient. Victoria University Student Newspaper. Volume 36, Number 21. 5 September 1973</ref> [[Māori people|Māori]] shared a common language that was used for trade, inter-[[iwi]] dialogue on [[marae]], and education through [[wānanga]].<ref>https://teara.govt.nz/en/economic-history/page-2 {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Brar |first=Atarjit |title=LibGuides: The Polynesian expansion across the Pacific: Maori |url=https://libguides.stalbanssc.vic.edu.au/polynesian-expansion/maori |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=libguides.stalbanssc.vic.edu.au |language=en}}</ref> After the signing of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]], Māori language was the lingua franca of the [[Colony of New Zealand]] until English superseded it in the 1870s.<ref name="History of the Māori language"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Post |url=https://www.thepost.co.nz/nz-news/350124740/ok-monolingual-boomer-you-might-be-having-your-final-moment-sun#:~:text=At%20the%20advent%20of%20colonisation,language%20of%20trade%20and%20education. |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=www.thepost.co.nz}}</ref> The description of Māori language as New Zealand's 19th-century lingua franca has been widely accepted.<ref>Benton, Richard A. "Changes in Language Use in a Rural Maori Community  1963-1978." ''The Journal of the Polynesian Society'', vol. 89, no. 4, 1980, pp. 455–78. ''JSTOR'', <nowiki>http://www.jstor.org/stable/20705517</nowiki>. Accessed 15 Mar. 2024.</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=The Post |url=https://www.thepost.co.nz/nz-news/350124740/ok-monolingual-boomer-you-might-be-having-your-final-moment-sun#:~:text=At%20the%20advent%20of%20colonisation,language%20of%20trade%20and%20education. |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=www.thepost.co.nz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Coffey |first=Clare |title=Demand For Māori Language Skills at Work Rises in New Zealand |url=https://lightcast.io/resources/blog/demand-for-maori-language-skills-at-work-rises-in-new-zealand |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=Lightcast |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Revitalizing Endangered Languages |url=https://www.iar-gwu.org/blog/vsba8c5mqrhvufzl4gjfmqz39e20x0 |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=THE INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS REVIEW |language=en-US}}</ref> The language was initially vital for all European and [[Chinese New Zealanders|Chinese migrants]] in New Zealand to learn,<ref name="Revitalizing Endangered Languages">{{Cite web |title=Revitalizing Endangered Languages |url=https://www.iar-gwu.org/blog/vsba8c5mqrhvufzl4gjfmqz39e20x0 |access-date=2023-09-12 |website=THE INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS REVIEW |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Coffey |first=Clare |title=Demand For Māori Language Skills at Work Rises in New Zealand |url=https://lightcast.io/resources/blog/demand-for-maori-language-skills-at-work-rises-in-new-zealand |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=Lightcast |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Post |url=https://www.thepost.co.nz/nz-news/350124740/ok-monolingual-boomer-you-might-be-having-your-final-moment-sun#:~:text=At%20the%20advent%20of%20colonisation,language%20of%20trade%20and%20education. |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=www.thepost.co.nz}}</ref> as Māori formed a majority of the population, owned nearly all the country's land and dominated the economy until the 1860s.<ref name="Revitalizing Endangered Languages"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Keane |first=Basil |date=11 March 2020 |title=Te Māori i te ohanga – Māori in the economy - Māori enterprise, 1840 to 1860 |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/te-maori-i-te-ohanga-maori-in-the-economy/page-3 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315040836/https://teara.govt.nz/en/te-maori-i-te-ohanga-maori-in-the-economy/page-3 |archive-date=15 March 2024 |access-date=19 November 2024 |website=Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand}}</ref> Discriminatory laws such as the [[Native schools|Native Schools Act 1867]] contributed to the demise of Māori language as a lingua franca.<ref name="History of the Māori language"/>

[[Sogdian language|Sogdian]] was used to facilitate trade between those who spoke different languages along the [[Silk Road]], which is why native speakers of Sogdian were employed as translators in [[Tang dynasty|Tang China]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lung|first=Rachel|title=Interpreters in Early Imperial China|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company|year=2011|isbn=9789027284181|pages=151–154}}</ref> The Sogdians also ended up circulating spiritual beliefs and texts, including those of [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity]], thanks to their ability to communicate to many people in the region through their native language.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Who Were the Sogdians, {{!}} The Sogdians|url=https://sogdians.si.edu/introduction/|access-date=2021-05-10|website=sogdians.si.edu|archive-date=11 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210911220242/https://sogdians.si.edu/introduction/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Old Church Slavonic]], an [[Eastern South Slavic]] language, is the first Slavic [[literary language]]. Between 9th and 11th century, it was the lingua franca of a great part of the predominantly [[Slavs|Slavic]] states and populations in [[Southeast Europe|Southeast]] and [[Eastern Europe]], in [[liturgy]] and church organization, culture, literature, education and diplomacy, as an [[Official language]] and [[National language]] in the case of [[Bulgaria]]. It was the first national and also international Slavic literary language (autonym {{lang|cu|словѣ́ньскъ ѩꙁꙑ́къ}}, {{lang|cu-Latn|slověnĭskŭ językŭ}}).<ref name="lpd">{{citation|last= Wells|first= John C.|year= 2008|title= Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition= 3rd|publisher= Longman|isbn= 9781405881180}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last= Jones |first= Daniel |author-link= Daniel Jones (phonetician) |title= English Pronouncing Dictionary |editor= Peter Roach |editor2= James Hartmann |editor3= Jane Setter |place= Cambridge |publisher= Cambridge University Press |orig-year= 1917 |year= 2003 |isbn= 978-3-12-539683-8 }}</ref> The Glagolitic alphabet was originally used at both schools, though the [[Cyrillic script]] was developed early on at the [[Preslav Literary School]], where it superseded Glagolitic as the official script in [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]] in 893. Old Church Slavonic spread to other South-Eastern, Central, and Eastern European Slavic territories, most notably [[Croatia]], [[Serbia]], [[Bohemia]], [[Lesser Poland]], and principalities of the [[Kievan Rus']] while retaining characteristically [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] linguistic features. It spread also to not completely Slavic territories between the [[Carpathian Mountains]], the [[Danube]] and the [[Black Sea]], corresponding to [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]]. Nowadays, the Cyrillic [[writing system]] is used for various languages across Eurasia, and as the national script in various Slavic, [[Turkic languages|Turkic]], [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]], [[Uralic languages|Uralic]], [[Caucasian languages|Caucasian]] and [[Iranian languages|Iranic]]-speaking countries in [[Southeastern Europe]], Eastern Europe, the [[Caucasus]], Central, North, and East Asia.

The [[Mediterranean Lingua Franca]] was largely based on Italian and [[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]. This language was spoken from the 11th to 19th centuries around the Mediterranean basin, particularly in the European commercial empires of Italian cities ([[Genoa]], Venice, [[Florence]], Milan, [[Pisa]], [[Siena]]) and in trading ports located throughout the eastern Mediterranean rim.<ref>Henry Romanos Kahane. ''The Lingua Franca in the Levant'' (Turkish Nautical Terms of Italian and Greek Origin)</ref>

During the [[Renaissance]], standard Italian was spoken as a language of culture in the main royal courts of Europe, and among intellectuals. This lasted from the 14th century to the end of the 16th, when French replaced Italian as the usual lingua franca in northern Europe.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} Italian musical terms, in particular dynamic and tempo notations, have continued in use to the present day.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15040264|title=Italian: The Language That Sings|website=NPR.org|access-date=21 February 2019|archive-date=17 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152355/https://www.npr.org/2007/10/08/15040264/italian-the-language-that-sings|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ivirtuosidelloperadiroma.com/en/why-italian-is-the-language-of-music-and-opera/ |title=Why Italian is the language of music and opera |website=I Virtuosi dell'Opera Di Roma |date=4 January 2022 |access-date=10 January 2023}}</ref>

[[Classical Quechua]] is either of two historical forms of [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]], the exact relationship and degree of closeness between which is controversial, and which have sometimes been identified with each other.<ref>See Itier (2000: 47) for the distinction between the first and second enumerated senses, and the quote below for their partial identification.</ref> These are:

# the variety of Quechua that was used as a lingua franca and administrative language in the [[Inca Empire]] (1438–1533)<ref name=snow,stark1971>Snow, Charles T., Louisa Rowell Stark. 1971. Ancash Quechua: A Pedagogical Grammar. P.V 'The Quechua language is generally associated with the "classical" Quechua of the Cuzco area, which was used as a lingua franca through Peru and Bolivia with the spread of the Inca Empire'</ref> (or Inca lingua franca<ref>Following the terminology of Durston 2007: 40</ref>). Since the Incas did not have writing, the evidence about the characteristics of this variety is scant and they have been a subject of significant disagreements.<ref>Durston 2007: 40, 322</ref>
# the variety of Quechua that was used in writing for religious and administrative purposes in the Andean territories of the Spanish Empire, mostly in the late 16th century and the first half of the 17th century and has sometimes been referred to, both historically and in academia, as ''lengua general'' ('common language')<ref>Beyersdorff, Margot, Sabine Dedenbach-Salazar Sáenz. 1994. Andean Oral Traditions: Discourse and Literature. P.275. 'the primarily [[catechesis|catechetical]] domain of this lingua franca – sometimes referred to as "classical" Quechua'...</ref><ref>Bills, Garland D., Bernardo Valejo. 1969. P. XV. 'Immediately following the Spanish Conquest the Quechua language, especially the prestigious "classical" Quechua of the Cuzco area, was used as a lingua franca throughout the Andean region by both missionaries and administrators.'</ref><ref>Cf. also Durston (2007: 17): 'The 1550–1650 period can be considered both formative and classical in relation to the late colonial and republican production'.</ref><ref>See e.g. Taylor 1975: 7–8 for the dating and the name ''lengua general'' and Adelaar 2007: 183 for the dating</ref> (or Standard Colonial Quechua<ref>Following the terminology of Durston (2007: 40)</ref>).

[[Ajem-Turkic]] functioned as lingua franca in the Caucasus region and in southeastern [[Dagestan]], and was widely spoken at the court and in the army of [[Safavid Iran]].<ref>{{cite book|pages=248–261|chapter=14|title=The Turkic Languages|author1=Lars Johanson|author2=Éva Á. Castó|year=1998|publisher=Routledge}}</ref>

===Modern===
====English====
{{Main|English as a lingua franca}}
[[File:English language distribution.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|English language distribution
{{legend|#346699|Majority native language}}
{{legend|#99ccff|Official or administrative language, but not native language}}
]]

English is sometimes described as the foremost global lingua franca, being used as a working language by individuals of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds in a variety of fields and international organizations to communicate with one another.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2017-04-25|title=The Linguistic Colonialism of English|url=https://brownpoliticalreview.org/2017/04/linguistic-colonialism-english/|access-date=2021-04-24|website=Brown Political Review|language=en-US|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424084057/https://brownpoliticalreview.org/2017/04/linguistic-colonialism-english/|url-status=live}}</ref> English is the [[list of languages by total number of speakers|most spoken language]] in the world, primarily due to the historical global influence of the [[British Empire]] as well as the [[United States]].<ref>{{e22|eng|English}}</ref> It is a [[official languages of the United Nations|co-official language of the United Nations]] and many other international and regional organizations and has also become the ''de facto'' language of [[diplomacy]], [[science]], [[international trade]], [[tourism]], [[aviation]], [[entertainment]] and the [[Languages used on the Internet|Internet]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/18/books/review/the-rise-of-english-rosemary-salomone.html|title=How the English Language Conquered the World|last=Chua|first=Amy|website=[[The New York Times]]|date=18 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301222132/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/18/books/review/the-rise-of-english-rosemary-salomone.html|archive-date=1 March 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>

When the [[United Kingdom]] became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the [[British Empire]]. In the post-colonial period, most of the newly independent nations which had many [[indigenous language]]s opted to continue using English as one of their official languages such as [[Ghana]] and [[South Africa]].<ref name=":3" /> In other former colonies with several official languages such as [[Singapore]] and [[Fiji]], English is the primary medium of education and serves as the lingua franca among citizens.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tan|first=Jason|date=1997|title=Education and Colonial Transition in Singapore and Hong Kong: Comparisons and Contrasts|journal=Comparative Education|volume=33|issue=2|pages=303–312|doi=10.1080/03050069728587}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://ewave-atlas.org/languages/68 | title=The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English | chapter=Pure Fiji English (Basilectal FijiE) | year=2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://fijiluxuryvacation.com/everyone-speak-english-in-fiji/ |title=Why Does Everyone Speak English in Fiji? |work=Raiwasa Private Resort |url-status=dead |access-date=5 December 2023 |date=26 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220827143620/https://fijiluxuryvacation.com/everyone-speak-english-in-fiji/ |archive-date=2022-08-27 }}</ref>

Even in countries not associated with the [[English-speaking world]], English has emerged as a lingua franca in certain situations where its use is perceived to be more efficient to communicate, especially among groups consisting of native speakers of many languages. In [[Qatar]], the medical community is primarily made up of workers from countries without English as a native language. In medical practices and hospitals, nurses typically communicate with other professionals in English as a lingua franca.<ref name="melf">{{cite web|url=http://bild-lida.ca/journal/volume_2_1_2018/tweedie_johnson/|title=Listening instruction and patient safety: Exploring medical English as a lingua franca (MELF) for nursing education|first1=Gregory|last1=Tweedie|first2=Robert|last2=Johnson|access-date=6 January 2018|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803074912/http://bild-lida.ca/journal/volume_2_1_2018/tweedie_johnson/|url-status=live}}</ref> This occurrence has led to interest in researching the consequences of the medical community communicating in a lingua franca.<ref name="melf"/> English is also sometimes used in [[Switzerland]] between people who do not share one of Switzerland's [[Languages of Switzerland|four official languages]], or with foreigners who are not fluent in the local language.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/english-as-a-common-language-in-switzerland--a-positive-or-a-problem-/46494332 |first=Thomas |last=Stephens |access-date=4 December 2023 |title=English as a common language in Switzerland: a positive or a problem? |date=4 April 2021 }}</ref> In the [[European Union]], the use of English as a lingua franca has led researchers to investigate whether a [[Euro English]] dialect has emerged.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mollin|first1=Sandra|title=Euro-English assessing variety status|date=2005|publisher=Narr|location=Tübingen|isbn=382336250X}}</ref> In the fields of technology and science, English emerged as a lingua franca in the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1109/MC.2017.3001253 |title=The Lingua Franca of Technology |year=2017 |last1=Alan Grier |first1=David |journal=Computer |volume=50 |issue=8 |page=104 }}</ref> English has also significantly [[Englishisation|influenced]] many other languages.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mikanowski |first=Jacob |date=2018-07-27 |title=Behemoth, bully, thief: how the English language is taking over the planet |url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/jul/27/english-language-global-dominance |access-date=2024-12-15 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

====Spanish====
[[File:Map-Hispanophone World.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Spanish language distribution
{{legend|#045a8d|Official language}}
{{legend|#0674b6|Co-official language}}
{{legend|#9bbae1|Culturally important or secondary language (> 20% of the population)}}
]]
The Spanish language spread mainly throughout the [[New World]], becoming a lingua franca in the territories and colonies of the [[Spanish Empire]], which also included parts of Africa, Asia, and Oceania. After the breakup of much of the empire in the Americas, its function as a lingua franca was solidified by the governments of the newly independent nations of what is now [[Hispanic America]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Stavans |first1=Ilan |title=The Spanish Language in Latin America since Independence |url=https://oxfordre.com/latinamericanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.001.0001/acrefore-9780199366439-e-371 |website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History |access-date=2 June 2021 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199366439.013.371 |date=2017-04-26|isbn=978-0-19-936643-9 }}</ref> While its usage in Spain's Asia-Pacific colonies has largely died out except in the [[Philippines]], where it is still spoken by a small minority, Spanish became the lingua franca of what is now [[Equatorial Guinea]], being the main language of government and education and is spoken by the vast majority of the population.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Granda|first=Germán de|title=El Español en Tres Mundos: Retenciones y Contactos Lingüísticos en América y África|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pasdAQAAIAAJ|date=1 January 1991|publisher=Universidad de Valladolid, Secretariado de Publicaciones|isbn=9788477622062|language=es}}</ref>

Due to large numbers of immigrants from Latin America in the second half of the 20th century and resulting influence, Spanish has also emerged somewhat as a lingua franca in parts of the [[Southwestern United States]] and southern [[Florida]], especially in communities where native Spanish speakers form the majority of the population.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Macías|first=Reynaldo|date=2014|title=Spanish as the Second National Language of the United States: Fact, Future, Fiction, or Hope?|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43284061|journal=Review of Research in Education|volume=38|pages=33–57|doi=10.3102/0091732X13506544 |jstor=43284061 |s2cid=143648085 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Lynch|first=Andrew|date=2023|title=Heritage language socialization at work: Spanish in Miami|journal=Journal of World Languages|volume=9|issue=1|pages=111–132 |doi=10.1515/jwl-2022-0048 |s2cid=255570955 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

At present it is the second most used language in international trade, and the third most used in politics, diplomacy and culture after English and French.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152438/http://www.quadernsdigitals.net/index.php?accionMenu=secciones.VisualizaArticuloSeccionIU.visualiza&proyecto_id=361&articuloSeccion_id=4463 "¿Por qué los brasileños deben aprender español?"]}} – Copyright 2003 Quaderns Digitals Todos los derechos reservados ISSN 1575-9393.</ref>

It is also one of the most taught foreign languages throughout the world<ref>[https://www.languagemagazine.com/2019/11/18/spanish-in-the-world/ Spanish in the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206042553/https://www.languagemagazine.com/2019/11/18/spanish-in-the-world/ |date=6 February 2021}}, ''Language Magazine'', 18 November 2019.</ref> and is also one of the [[Official languages of the United Nations|six official languages of the United Nations]].

====French====
[[File:Map-Francophone World.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|French language distribution
{{legend|#0049a2|Majority native language}}
{{legend|#006aFF|Official language, but not a majority native language}}
{{legend|#8ec3ff|Administrative or cultural language}}
]]

French is sometimes regarded as the first global lingua franca, having supplanted [[Latin]] as the prestige language of politics, trade, education, diplomacy, and military in [[Early modern period|early modern]] Europe and later spreading around the world with the establishment of the [[French colonial empire]].<ref name="Wright">{{cite journal|last=Wright|first=Sue|date=2006|title=French as a lingua franca|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/annual-review-of-applied-linguistics/article/abs/french-as-a-lingua-franca/709F93AD0A5A7E7162C6E170FCA59E43|journal=Annual Review of Applied Linguistics|volume=26|pages=35–60|doi=10.1017/S0267190506000031|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> With [[France]] emerging as the leading political, economic, and cultural power of Europe in the 16th century, the language was adopted by royal courts throughout the continent, including the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Russia, and as the language of communication between European academics, merchants, and diplomats.<ref>{{cite book |title=When The World Spoke French |author=Marc Fumaroli |translator=Richard Howard |year=2011 |publisher=New York Review of Books |isbn=978-1590173756 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/whenworldspokefr00fuma }}</ref> With the expansion of Western colonial empires, French became the main language of diplomacy and international relations up until [[World War II]] when it was replaced by English due the rise of the [[United States]] as the leading [[superpower]]. Stanley Meisler of the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' said that the fact that the [[Treaty of Versailles]] was written in English as well as French was the "first diplomatic blow" against the language.<ref>{{cite news|last=Meisler|first=Stanley|title=Seduction Still Works : French—a Language in Decline|newspaper=The Los Angeles Times|date=1 March 1986|access-date=18 October 2021|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-03-01-mn-13048-story.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702203738/http://articles.latimes.com/1986-03-01/news/mn-13048_1_french-language/2|archive-date=2 July 2015}}</ref> Nevertheless, it remains the second most used language in international affairs and is one of the [[Official languages of the United Nations|six official languages of the United Nations]].<ref name="andaman.org">[http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm The World's 10 Most Influential Languages] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312042140/http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm |date=12 March 2008 }} ''Top Languages''. Retrieved 11 April 2011.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pya2KY8upAUC&pg=PA2 |title=The French Language Today: A Linguistic Introduction |last1=Battye |first1=Adrian |last2=Hintze |first2=Marie-Anne |last3=Rowlett |first3=Paul |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2003 |language=en |isbn=978-0-203-41796-6 |access-date=19 March 2022 |archive-date=17 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152354/https://books.google.com/books?id=pya2KY8upAUC&pg=PA2 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[https://ask.un.org/faq/14463?_gl=1*17fvpf2*_ga*NjYyMTgyNjE4LjE3MTM2NDc0OTQ.*_ga_TK9BQL5X7Z*MTcxMzY0NzQ5My4xLjEuMTcxMzY0NzkxMy4wLjAuMA.. What are the official languages of the United Nations?], ''Ask UN'', 23 December 2023.</ref>

As a legacy of French and [[Belgian colonial empire|Belgian]] colonial rule, most former colonies of these countries maintain French as an official language or lingua franca due to the many indigenous languages spoken in their territory. Notably, in most Francophone [[West Africa|West]] and [[Central Africa]]n countries, French has transitioned from being only a lingua franca to the native language among some communities, mostly in urban areas or among the elite class.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-04-07|title=Why the future of French is African|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47790128|access-date=2021-04-24|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411215818/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-47790128|url-status=live}}</ref> In other regions such as the French-speaking countries of the [[Maghreb]] ([[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], [[Morocco]], and [[Mauritania]]) and parts of the [[French Caribbean]], French is the lingua franca in professional sectors and education, even though it is not the native language of the majority.<ref name="Maamri1013">Maamri, Malika Rebai. "[http://openaccesslibrary.org/images/Malika_Rebai_Maamri.pdf The Syndrome of the French Language in Algeria]." ([https://web.archive.org/web/20151123121428/http://openaccesslibrary.org/images/Malika_Rebai_Maamri.pdf Archive]) ''International Journal of Arts and Sciences''. 3(3): 77 – 89 (2009) CD-ROM. {{ISSN|1944-6934}} p. 10 of 13</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Stevens |first=Paul |title=Modernism and Authenticity as Reflected in Language Attitudes : The Case of Tunisia |publisher=Civilisations |volume=30 |issue=1/2 |year=1980 |pages=37–59 |jstor=41802986 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41802986 }}</ref><ref>Felicien, Marie Michelle. [https://globalpressjournal.com/americas/haiti/schools-teaching-creole-instead-french-rise-haiti/ Schools Teaching in Creole Instead of French on the Rise in Haiti], ''Global Press Journal'', 13 November 2019</ref>

French continues to be used as a lingua franca in certain cultural fields such as [[cuisine]], [[fashion]], and [[sport]].<ref>Notaker, Henry. [https://lithub.com/how-french-cuisine-took-over-the-world/ How French Cuisine Took Over the World], excerpt from ''A History of Cookbooks From Kitchen to Page over Seven Centuries'', University of California Press, 13 September 2017.</ref><ref name="Wright"></ref>

As a consequence of [[Brexit]], French has been increasingly used as a lingua franca in the [[European Union]] and its institutions either alongside or, at times, in place of English.<ref>Chazan, Guy and Jim Brunsden. [https://www.ft.com/content/e70b5042-3c65-11e6-8716-a4a71e8140b0 Push to bid adieu to English as EU's lingua franca], ''Financial Times'', 28 June 2016.</ref><ref>Rankin, Jennifer. [https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/may/05/brexit-english-is-losing-its-importance-in-europe-says-juncker Brexit: English is losing its importance in Europe, says Juncker], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 5 May 2017.</ref>

====German====
[[File:Legal status of German in Europe.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|
Legal statuses of German in Europe:
{{legend|#ffcc00|"German [[Sprachraum]]": German is a/an (co-)official language and first language of the majority of the population.}}
{{legend|#d98575|German is a co-official language, but not the first language of the majority of the population.}}
{{legend|#7373d9|German (or a German dialect) is a legally recognized minority language (squares: geographic distribution too dispersed/small for map scale).}}
{{legend|#30efe3|German (or a variety of German) is spoken by a sizable minority, but has no legal recognition.}}]]

[[German language|German]] is used as a lingua franca in Switzerland to some extent; however, English is generally preferred to avoid favoring it over the three other official languages. German remains a widely studied language in Central Europe and the Balkans, especially in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia#Federal units|former Yugoslavia]]. It is recognized as an official language in countries outside of Europe, specifically [[Namibia]]. German is also one of the [[working language]]s of the EU along English and French, but it is used less in that role than the other two.

====Low German====
[[File:Hansesprache no text.jpg|thumb|left|Extent of Middle Low German in red with its use as a literary language black lines tilted right]]
[[Low German]], also known as Low Saxon, used to be the Lingua franca during the late [[Hohenstaufen]] till the mid-15th century periods ([[Middle Low German]]), in the [[North Sea]] and the [[Baltic Sea]] when extensive trading was done by the [[Hanseatic League]] along the Baltic and North Seas.

====Chinese====
Today, [[Standard Chinese|Standard Mandarin Chinese]] is the lingua franca of [[China]] and [[Taiwan]], which are home to many mutually unintelligible [[varieties of Chinese]] and, in the case of Taiwan, indigenous [[Formosan languages]]. Among many [[Chinese diaspora]] communities, [[Cantonese]] is often used as the lingua franca instead, particularly in Southeast Asia, due to a longer history of immigration and trade networks with southern China, although Mandarin has also been adopted in some circles since the 2000s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Li|first=David|date=2006|title=Chinese as a lingua franca in Greater China|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231791003|journal=Annual Review of Applied Linguistics|volume=26|pages=149–176|doi=10.1017/S0267190506000080|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 }}</ref>

====Arabic====
[[File:Arabic Dispersion.svg|thumb|left|Arabic language map<br />Dark green: majority; light green: significant minority]]

[[Arabic]] was used as a lingua franca across the Islamic empires, whose sizes necessitated a common language, and spread across the Arab and Muslim worlds.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=M. A.|first1=Geography|last2=B. A.|first2=English and Geography|title=How Lingua Franca Helps Different Cultures to Communicate|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/lingua-franca-overview-1434507|access-date=2021-04-24|website=ThoughtCo|language=en|archive-date=17 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152440/https://www.thoughtco.com/lingua-franca-overview-1434507|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Djibouti]] and parts of [[Eritrea]], both of which are countries where multiple official languages are spoken, Arabic has emerged as a lingua franca in part thanks to the population of the region being predominantly Muslim and Arabic playing a crucial role in Islam. In addition, after having fled from Eritrea due to [[Eritrean War of Independence|ongoing warfare]] and gone to some of the nearby Arab countries, Eritrean emigrants are contributing to Arabic becoming a lingua franca in the region by coming back to their homelands having picked up the Arabic language.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Simeone-Sinelle|first=Marie-Claude|date=2005|title=Arabic Lingua Franca in the Horn of Africa|journal=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics|volume=2|via=Academia.edu}}</ref>

====Russian====
[[File:Idioma ruso.PNG|thumb|Areas where Russian is the majority language (medium blue) or a minority language (light blue)]]

Russian is in use and widely understood in [[Central Asia]] and the [[Caucasus]], areas formerly part of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union. Its use remains prevalent in many [[post-Soviet states]]. Russian has some presence as a minority language in the [[Baltic states]] and some other states in Eastern Europe, as well as in pre-[[Chinese economic reform|opening]] China.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}} It remains the official language of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]. Russian is also one of the six official languages of the United Nations.<ref name="un.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/DGACM/faq_languages.htm |title=Department for General Assembly and Conference Management – What are the official languages of the United Nations?|access-date=25 January 2008|publisher=United Nations|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071012035848/http://www.un.org/Depts/DGACM/faq_languages.htm |archive-date=12 October 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> Since the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapse of the Soviet Union]], its use has declined in post-Soviet states. Parts of the Russian speaking minorities outside Russia have either emigrated to Russia or assimilated into their countries of residence by learning the local language, which they now prefer to use in daily communication.

For contrast, in [[Central Europe]]an countries that after the Second World War were included in the Soviet Union's sphere of influence, the Russian language was used only as [[Eastern Bloc]]'s language of internal political communication. There are no Russian minorities in these countries, in schools the primary foreign language is English and nowadays the Russian language practically does not exist.

====Portuguese====
[[File:Detailed SVG map of the Lusophone world.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|The [[Lusophone]] world{{legend|#002375|Native language}}
{{legend|#1886FE|Official and administrative language}}
{{legend|#79BDFF|Cultural or secondary language}}]]

[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] served as lingua franca in the Portuguese Empire, Africa, South America and Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. When the Portuguese started exploring the seas of Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, they tried to communicate with the natives by mixing a Portuguese-influenced version of lingua franca with the local languages. When Dutch, English or French ships came to compete with the Portuguese, the crews tried to learn this "broken Portuguese". Through a process of change the lingua franca and Portuguese lexicon was replaced with the languages of the people in contact. Portuguese remains an important lingua franca in the [[Portuguese-speaking African countries]], [[East Timor]], and to a certain extent in [[Macau]] where it is recognized as an official language alongside Chinese though in practice not commonly spoken. Portuguese and Spanish have a certain degree of [[mutual intelligibility]] and [[mixed language]]s such as [[Portuñol]] are used {{Cn|date=July 2024}} to facilitate communication in areas like the border area between Brazil and Uruguay.

====Hindustani====
[[File:Hindi belt.png|left|thumb|The '''Hindi Belt''' (red) is a linguistic region in India where [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] (based on [[Old Hindi|Dehlavi]]) serves as the ''lingua franca.'']]
The [[Hindustani language]], with [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]] as dual standard varieties, serves as the lingua franca of [[Pakistan]] and [[Northern India]].<ref name="siddiqi1994">{{Citation | title=Hindustani-English code-mixing in modern literary texts | author=Mohammad Tahsin Siddiqi | year=1994 | publisher=University of Wisconsin | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vnrTAAAAMAAJ | quote=... Hindustani is the lingua franca of both India and Pakistan ... | access-date=18 August 2020 | archive-date=17 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152411/https://books.google.com/books?id=vnrTAAAAMAAJ | url-status=live }}{{self-published source|date=August 2018}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=August 2018}}<ref name="pulsipher2005">{{Citation | title=World Regional Geography: Global Patterns, Local Lives | author1=Lydia Mihelič Pulsipher | author2=Alex Pulsipher | author3=Holly M. Hapke | year=2005 | isbn=0-7167-1904-5 | publisher=Macmillan | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfNaSNNAppQC | quote=... By the time of British colonialism, Hindustani was the lingua franca of all of northern India and what is today Pakistan ... | access-date=18 August 2020 | archive-date=17 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152400/https://books.google.com/books?id=WfNaSNNAppQC | url-status=live }}</ref>{{Page needed|date=August 2018}} Many Hindi-speaking North Indian states have adopted the [[three-language formula]] in which students are taught: "(a) Hindi (with Sanskrit as part of the composite course); (b) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu and (c) English or any other modern European language." The order in non-Hindi speaking states is: "(a) the major language of the state or region; (b) Hindi; (c) Any other modern Indian language including Urdu but excluding (a) and (b) above; and (d) English or any other modern European language."<ref name="nic">{{cite web|title=Three Language Formula|url=http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/u/47/3X/473X0I01.htm|publisher=Government of India Ministry of Human Resource Development Department of Education|access-date=16 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222082907/http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/u/47/3X/473X0I01.htm|archive-date=22 February 2012}}</ref> Hindi has also emerged as a lingua franca in [[Arunachal Pradesh]], a linguistically diverse state in Northeast India.<ref>Chandra, Abhimanyu (22 August 2014). [https://scroll.in/article/675419/how-hindi-became-the-language-of-choice-in-arunachal-pradesh "How Hindi Became the Language of Choice in Arunachal Pradesh."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821190330/https://scroll.in/article/675419/how-hindi-became-the-language-of-choice-in-arunachal-pradesh |date=21 August 2020 }} ''[[Scroll.in]]''. Retrieved 12 March 2019.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-17.html|title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|access-date=17 October 2022|archive-date=13 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113211224/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-17.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It is estimated that nine-tenths of the state's population knows Hindi.<ref>Roychowdhury, Adrija (27 February 2018). [https://indianexpress.com/article/research/how-hindi-language-became-arunachal-pradeshs-lingua-franca-narendra-modi-5079079/ "How Hindi Became Arunachal Pradesh's Lingua Franca."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821190341/https://indianexpress.com/article/research/how-hindi-language-became-arunachal-pradeshs-lingua-franca-narendra-modi-5079079/ |date=21 August 2020 }} ''[[The Indian Express]]''. Retrieved 12 March 2019.</ref>

Urdu is the lingua franca of Pakistan and had gained significant influence amongst its people, administration and education. While it shares official status with English, Urdu is the preferred and dominant language used for inter-communication between different ethnic groups of Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ashraf |first1=Muhammad Azeem |last2=Turner |first2=David A. |last3=Laar |first3=Rizwan Ahmed |date=January 2021 |title=Multilingual Language Practices in Education in Pakistan: The Conflict Between Policy and Practice |journal=SAGE Open |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=215824402110041 |doi=10.1177/21582440211004140 |issn=2158-2440|doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Malay====
[[File:Malayophone world.svg|thumb|Countries where pluricentric Malay is spoken, regardless of standard variety]]

[[Malay language|Malay]] is understood across a cultural region in Southeast Asia called the "[[Malay world]]" including [[Brunei]], Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, southern [[Thailand]], and certain parts of the Philippines. It is [[pluricentric language|pluricentric]], with several nations codifying a local vernacular variety into several national literary standards:<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Malay as a pluricentric language|title=Pluricentric Languages|pages=402–3, 413|year=1992|author=Asmah Haji Omar|author-link=Asmah Haji Omar|isbn=3-11-012855-1|editor-first=Michael G. |editor-last=Clyne|publisher=Gruyter|editor-link=Michael Clyne}}</ref> Although [[Javanese language|Javanese]] has more native speakers, Indonesia uses a standardized form of [[Riau-Lingga Sultanate|Riau]] Malay as the basis for the national language "[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]." Bahasa Indonesia is the sole official language even though it is the mother tongue of [[languages of Indonesia|only 7%]] of Indonesians.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Indonesian|website=Asian Languages & Literature|publisher=University of Washington|url=https://asian.washington.edu/fields/indonesian|access-date=2021-04-24|archive-date=16 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516173537/https://asian.washington.edu/fields/indonesian|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Swahili====
[[File:Maeneo penye wasemaji wa Kiswahili.png|thumb|left|Geographic extent of Swahili. Dark green: native range. Medium green: official use. Light green: bilingual use but not official.]]

[[Swahili language|Swahili]] developed as a lingua franca between several [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]-speaking tribal groups on the east coast of Africa with heavy influence from Arabic.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Swahili-language|title=Swahili language|date=27 August 2014|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=29 April 2019|archive-date=23 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723004044/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Swahili-language|url-status=live}}</ref> The earliest examples of writing in Swahili are from 1711.<ref>E. A. Alpers, ''Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa'', London, 1975.., pp. 98–99 ; T. Vernet, "Les cités-Etats swahili et la puissance omanaise (1650–1720), ''Journal des Africanistes'', 72(2), 2002, pp. 102–105.</ref> In the early 19th century the use of Swahili as a lingua franca moved inland with the Arabic ivory and slave traders. It was eventually adopted by Europeans as well during periods of colonization in the area. German colonizers used it as the language of administration in [[German East Africa]], later becoming [[Tanganyika (territory)|Tanganyika]], which influenced the choice to use it as a national language in what is now independent [[Tanzania]].<ref name=":2" /> Swahili is currently one of the national languages and it is taught in schools and universities in several East African countries, thus prompting it to be regarded as a modern-day lingua franca by many people in the region. Several [[Pan-African]] writers and politicians have unsuccessfully called for Swahili to become the lingua franca of Africa as a means of unifying the African continent and overcoming the legacy of colonialism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dzahene-Quarshie|first=Josephine|date=December 2013|title=Ghana's Contribution to the Promotion of Kiswahili: Challenges and Prospects for African Unity|journal=Journal of Pan African Studies|volume=6|pages=69–85|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref>

====Persian====
[[File:Persian Language Location Map.svg|thumb|Areas with significant numbers of people whose first language is Persian (including dialects)]]

[[Persian language|Persian]], an [[Iranian language]], is the official language of [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]] ([[Dari language|Dari]]) and [[Tajikistan]] ([[Tajik language|Tajik]]). It acts as a lingua franca in both Iran and Afghanistan between the various ethnic groups in those countries. The Persian language in South Asia, before the [[British Raj|British colonized the Indian subcontinent]], was the region's lingua franca and a widely used official language in north India and Pakistan.

====Hausa====
[[Hausa language|Hausa]] is the language of communication between speakers of different languages in Northern [[Nigeria]] and other West African countries,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-03-23|title=Hausa Language: 4 interesting things you should know about Nigeria's most widely spoken dialect|url=https://www.pulse.ng/lifestyle/food-travel/hausa-language-4-interesting-things-you-should-know-about-nigerias-most-widely-spoken/m78gnmh|access-date=2021-04-21|website=Pulse Nigeria|language=en|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421182432/https://www.pulse.ng/lifestyle/food-travel/hausa-language-4-interesting-things-you-should-know-about-nigerias-most-widely-spoken/m78gnmh|url-status=live}}</ref> including the northern region of Ghana.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Obeng|first=Samuel Gyasi |author-link1=Samuel Obeng (linguist) |date=1997|title=An Analysis of the Linguistic Situation in Ghana|journal=African Languages and Cultures|volume=10|pages=63–81|doi=10.1080/09544169708717813}}</ref>

====Amharic====
[[Amharic language|Amharic]] is the lingua franca and most widely spoken language in Ethiopia, and is known by most people who speak another Ethiopian language.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.addisherald.com/amharic-language-how-it-become-ethiopias-lingua-franca/ | title=Amharic Language: How it become Ethiopia's Lingua Franca – Addis Herald }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://omnatigray.org/amharic-lingua-franca-and-tool-of-domination/ | title=Amharic as a lingua franca and tool of domination | date=12 January 2022 }}</ref>

====Creole languages====
Creoles, such as [[Nigerian Pidgin]] in Nigeria, are used as lingua francas across the world. This is especially true in Africa, the [[Caribbean]], [[Melanesia]], Southeast Asia and in parts of Australia by [[Indigenous Australians]].

====Sign languages====
[[File:Sign Languages of Turtle Island.svg|thumb|left|Map of the various sign languages of North America, excluding [[Francosign languages|Francosign]] languages. [[Plains Indian Sign Language|Hand Talk]] was the predominant lingua franca prior to European settlement, able to be written down and signed alongside oral languages]]

The majority of pre-colonial North American nations communicated internationally using [[Plains Indian Sign Language|Hand Talk]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Plains Indian Sign Language|url=https://samnoblemuseum.ou.edu/collections-and-research/native-american-languages/map-of-oklahoma-languages/plains-indian-sign-language/|access-date=2021-04-24|website=Sam Noble Museum|date=21 December 2017 |language=en-US|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424233208/https://samnoblemuseum.ou.edu/collections-and-research/native-american-languages/map-of-oklahoma-languages/plains-indian-sign-language/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Graber |first1=Jennifer |title=Who put Native American sign language in the US mail? |url=https://blog.oup.com/2018/05/native-american-sign-language-us-mail/ |website=OUPblog |date=9 May 2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-date=15 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215194025/https://blog.oup.com/2018/05/native-american-sign-language-us-mail/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Also called Prairie Sign Language, Plains Indian Sign Language, or First Nations Sign Language, this language functioned predominantly—and still continues to function<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hilleary |first1=Cecily |title=Native American Hand Talkers Fight to Keep Sign Language Alive |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/native-american-hand-talker-fight-to-keep-signed-language-alive/3794333.html |website=VOA |date=3 April 2017 |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-date=17 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152402/https://www.voanews.com/a/native-american-hand-talker-fight-to-keep-signed-language-alive/3794333.html |url-status=live }}</ref>—as a second language within most of the (now historical) countries of the Great Plains, from [[Western Shoshone|Newe Segobia]] in the West to [[Ojibwe|Anishinaabewaki]] in the East, down into what are now the northern states of Mexico and up into [[Cree]] Country stopping before [[Denendeh]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Indian Sign Language Council of 1930 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=bfT2a5SGDFA |website=YouTube | date=9 June 2012 |publisher=Grande Polpo Deaf |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-date=17 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017152522/https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=bfT2a5SGDFA |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Tomkins, William. ''Indian sign language.'' [Republication of "Universal Indian Sign Language of the Plains Indians of North America" 5th ed. 1931]. New York : Dover Publications 1969. (p. 7)</ref> The relationship remains unknown between Hand Talk and other manual Indigenous languages like [[Keresan Sign Language]] and [[Plateau Sign Language]], the latter of which is now extinct (though Ktunaxa Sign Language is still used).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Flynn |first1=Darin |title=Indigenous sign languages in Canada |url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/people/darin-flynn/indigenous-sign-languages-in-Canada |website=University of Calgary |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511005642/https://www.ucalgary.ca/people/darin-flynn/indigenous-sign-languages-in-Canada |url-status=live }}</ref> Although unrelated, perhaps [[Inuit Sign Language]] played and continues to play a similar role across [[Inuit Nunangat]] and the various [[Inuit]] [[Inuit languages|dialects]]. The original Hand Talk is found across [[Indian Country]] in pockets, but it has also been employed to create new or revive old languages, such as with [[Oneida Sign Language]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Oneida Sign language created to connect deaf community with culture {{!}} CBC News |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I8_LRBi9y0I | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/I8_LRBi9y0I| archive-date=2021-10-30|access-date=11 May 2021 |publisher=NewsHub}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

[[International Sign]], though a pidgin language, is present at most significant international gatherings, from which interpretations of national [[sign language]]s are given, such as in [[French Sign Language|LSF]], [[American Sign Language|ASL]], [[British Sign Language|BSL]], [[Libras]], or [[Auslan]]. International Sign, or IS and formerly Gestuno, interpreters can be found at many [[European Union]] parliamentary or committee sittings,<ref>{{cite web |title=International Sign |url=https://www.eud.eu/about-us/eud-position-paper/international-sign-guidelines/ |website=European Union of the Deaf |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-date=28 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128014325/https://www.eud.eu/about-us/eud-position-paper/international-sign-guidelines/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> during certain United Nations affairs,<ref>{{cite web |title=A Disability-Inclusive Response to COVID-19 – Policy Brief Executive Summary (International Sign Language) |url=http://webtv.un.org/watch/a-disability-inclusive-response-to-covid-19-policy-brief-executive-summary-international-sign-language/6154796428001 |website=UN Web TV |publisher=United Nations |access-date=11 May 2021 |archive-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511090159/http://webtv.un.org/watch/a-disability-inclusive-response-to-covid-19-policy-brief-executive-summary-international-sign-language/6154796428001 |url-status=live }}</ref> conducting international sporting events like the [[Deaflympics]], in all [[World Federation of the Deaf]] functions, and across similar settings. The language has few set internal grammatical rules, instead co-opting national vocabularies of the speaker and audience, and modifying the words to bridge linguistic gaps, with heavy use of gestures and [[Classifier constructions in sign languages|classifiers]].<ref>{{cite web |title=DEAFGPS: International Sign Connects |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GwzSv5JpwjM | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/GwzSv5JpwjM| archive-date=2021-10-30|website=YouTube | date=26 July 2019 |publisher=H3 WORLD TV |access-date=11 May 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
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