Editing Lithium (section)

== Occurrence ==
[[File:Elemental abundances.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Lithium is about as common as [[chlorine]] in the Earth's upper continental [[crust (geology)|crust]], on a per-atom basis.]]

=== Astronomical ===
{{Main|Nucleosynthesis|Stellar nucleosynthesis|Lithium burning}}
Although it was synthesized in the [[Big Bang]], lithium (together with beryllium and boron) is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements. This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium, along with a lack of common processes to produce it.<ref name="wesleyan">{{cite web |url=http://www.astro.wesleyan.edu/~bill/courses/astr231/wes_only/element_abundances.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901133923/http://www.astro.wesleyan.edu/~bill/courses/astr231/wes_only/element_abundances.pdf |archive-date=1 September 2006 |title=Element Abundances |access-date=17 November 2009}}</ref>

According to modern cosmological theory, lithium—in both stable isotopes (lithium-6 and lithium-7)—was one of the three elements synthesized in the Big Bang.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1985ARA&A..23..319B |title=Big bang nucleosynthesis – Theories and observations |last1=Boesgaard |first1=A. M. |last2=Steigman |first2=G. |volume=23 |date=1985 |pages=319–378 |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |id=A86-14507 04–90 |location=Palo Alto, CA |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.23.090185.001535}}</ref> Though the amount of lithium generated in [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]] is dependent upon the number of [[photon]]s per [[baryon]], for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated, and there is a "[[cosmological lithium problem|cosmological lithium discrepancy]]" in the universe: older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20170220-the-cosmic-explosions-that-made-the-universe |title=The Cosmic Explosions That Made the Universe |last=Woo |first=Marcus |date=21 February 2017 |website=earth |publisher=BBC |access-date=21 February 2017 |quote=A mysterious cosmic factory is producing lithium. Scientists are now getting closer at finding out where it comes from |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221214442/http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20170220-the-cosmic-explosions-that-made-the-universe |archive-date=21 February 2017}}</ref> The lack of lithium in older stars is apparently caused by the "mixing" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed,<ref name="cld">{{Cite news |url=http://www.universetoday.com/476/why-old-stars-seem-to-lack-lithium/ |title=Why Old Stars Seem to Lack Lithium |date=16 August 2006 |author=Cain, Fraser |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604044857/http://www.universetoday.com/476/why-old-stars-seem-to-lack-lithium/ |archive-date=4 June 2016}}</ref> while lithium is produced in younger stars. Although it [[lithium burning|transmutes]] into two atoms of [[helium]] due to collision with a [[proton]] at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than computations would predict in later-generation stars.<ref name="emsley" />
[[File:Nova Centauri 2013 ESO.jpg|thumb|[[Nova Centauri 2013]] is the first in which evidence of lithium has been found.<ref>{{cite web |title=First Detection of Lithium from an Exploding Star |url=http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1531/ |access-date=29 July 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150801001700/http://www.eso.org/public/news/eso1531/ |archive-date=1 August 2015}}</ref>]]

Lithium is also found in [[brown dwarf]] substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars. Because lithium is present in cooler, less-massive brown dwarfs, but is destroyed in hotter [[red dwarf]] stars, its presence in the stars' spectra can be used in the "lithium test" to differentiate the two, as both are smaller than the Sun.<ref name="emsley" /><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.universetoday.com/24593/brown-dwarf/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110225032434/http://www.universetoday.com/24593/brown-dwarf/ |archive-date=25 February 2011 |title=Brown Dwarf |access-date=17 November 2009 |last=Cain |first=Fraser |work=Universe Today}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-int.stsci.edu/~inr/ldwarf3.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130521055905/http://www-int.stsci.edu/~inr/ldwarf3.html |archive-date=21 May 2013 |title=L Dwarf Classification |access-date=6 March 2013 |first=Neill |last=Reid |date=10 March 2002}}</ref> Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium. Those orange stars found to have a higher than usual concentration of lithium (such as [[Centaurus X-4]]) orbit massive objects—neutron stars or black holes—whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen-helium star, causing more lithium to be observed.<ref name="emsley" />

On 27 May 2020, astronomers reported that [[classical nova]] explosions are galactic producers of lithium-7.<ref name="EA-20200601">{{cite news |author=[[Arizona State University]] |title=Class of stellar explosions found to be galactic producers of lithium |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-06/asu-cos060120.php |date=1 June 2020 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=2 June 2020 |archive-date=3 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603070318/https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-06/asu-cos060120.php |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="AJ-20200527">{{cite journal |author1-link=Sumner Starrfield |author=Starrfield, Sumner |display-authors=et al. |title=Carbon–Oxygen Classical Novae Are Galactic 7Li Producers as well as Potential Supernova Ia Progenitors |date=27 May 2020 |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=895 |number=1 |page=70 |doi=10.3847/1538-4357/ab8d23 |arxiv=1910.00575 |bibcode=2020ApJ...895...70S |s2cid=203610207 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Terrestrial ===
{{See also|:Category:Lithium compounds|l1=Lithium compounds|:Category:Lithium minerals|l2=Lithium minerals}}
Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity.<ref name="krebs">{{Cite book |last=Krebs |first=Robert E. |date=2006 |title=The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements: A Reference Guide |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=978-0-313-33438-2}}</ref> The total lithium content of seawater is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes, where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ioes.saga-u.ac.jp/ioes-study/li/lithium/occurence.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502142924/http://www.ioes.saga-u.ac.jp/ioes-study/li/lithium/occurence.html |archive-date=2 May 2009 |title=Lithium Occurrence |access-date=13 March 2009 |publisher=Institute of Ocean Energy, Saga University, Japan}}</ref><ref name="enc" /> or 25 [[micromolar]];<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Extraction of metals from sea water |date=1984 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |doi=10.1007/3-540-13534-0_3 |volume=124 |pages=91–133 |series=Topics in Current Chemistry |last1=Schwochau |first1=Klaus |title=Inorganic Chemistry |isbn=978-3-540-13534-0 |s2cid=93866412}}</ref> higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found near [[hydrothermal vents]].<ref name="enc" />

Estimates for the Earth's [[crust (geology)|crustal]] content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight.<ref name="kamienski" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/lithium-chemical-element |title=lithium |website=Britannica encyclopedia |access-date=4 August 2020 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805231540/https://www.britannica.com/science/lithium-chemical-element |url-status=live}}</ref> In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of [[igneous rock]]s, with the largest concentrations in [[granite]]s. Granitic [[pegmatite]]s also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, with [[spodumene]] and [[petalite]] being the most commercially viable sources.<ref name="kamienski" /> Another significant mineral of lithium is [[lepidolite]] which is now an obsolete name for a series formed by polylithionite and trilithionite.<ref>{{cite book |title=Shriver & Atkins' Inorganic Chemistry |edition=5th |publisher=W. H. Freeman and Company |place=New York |date=2010 |page=296 |isbn=978-0-19-923617-6 |author=Atkins, Peter}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mindat.org/ |title=Mindat.org – Mines, Minerals and More |website=www.mindat.org |access-date=4 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110422205859/http://www.mindat.org/ |archive-date=22 April 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> Another source for lithium is [[hectorite]] clay, the only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Moores, S. |title=Between a rock and a salt lake |journal=Industrial Minerals |date=June 2007 |page=58 |volume=477}}</ref> At 20&nbsp;mg lithium per kg of Earth's crust,<ref>Taylor, S. R.; McLennan, S. M.; The continental crust: Its composition and evolution, Blackwell Sci. Publ., Oxford, 330 pp. (1985). Cited in [[Abundances of the elements (data page)]]</ref> lithium is the 31st most abundant element.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Emsley |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&dq=%2231st+most+abundant+element%22&pg=PA238 |title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-850340-8 |language=en}}</ref>

According to the ''Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium'', "Lithium is a comparatively rare element, although it is found in many rocks and some brines, but always in very low concentrations. There are a fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value. Many are very small, others are too low in grade."<ref>Garrett, Donald (2004) ''Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium'', Academic Press, cited in ''[http://www.meridian-int-res.com/Projects/Lithium_Microscope.pdf The Trouble with Lithium 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714074508/http://www.meridian-int-res.com/Projects/Lithium_Microscope.pdf |date=14 July 2011 }}'', Meridian International Research (2008)</ref>

Chile is estimated (2020) to have the largest reserves by far (9.2 million tonnes),<ref name="uslit" /> and Australia the highest annual production (40,000 tonnes).<ref name="uslit" /> One of the largest ''reserve bases''<ref group=note name=res>[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2011/mcsapp2011.pdf Appendixes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106013449/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2011/mcsapp2011.pdf |date=6 November 2011 }}. By USGS definitions, the reserve base "may encompass those parts of the resources that have a reasonable potential for becoming economically available within planning horizons beyond those that assume proven technology and current economics. The reserve base includes those resources that are currently economic (reserves), marginally economic (marginal reserves), and some of those that are currently subeconomic (subeconomic resources)."</ref> of lithium is in the [[Salar de Uyuni]] area of Bolivia, which has 5.4 million tonnes. Other major suppliers include Australia, Argentina and China.<ref name="minerals.usgs.gov">{{citation |title=Lithium Statistics and Information |date=2018 |url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303175050/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/lithium/ |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |access-date=25 July 2002 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="meridian">{{cite web |url=http://www.meridian-int-res.com/Projects/Lithium_Microscope.pdf |title=The Trouble with Lithium 2 |work=Meridian International Research |date=2008 |access-date=29 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714074508/http://www.meridian-int-res.com/Projects/Lithium_Microscope.pdf |archive-date=14 July 2011}}</ref> As of 2015, the [[Czech Geological Survey]] considered the entire [[Ore Mountains]] in the Czech Republic as lithium province. Five deposits are registered, one near {{ill|Cínovec|cs|Cínovec (Dubí)}} is considered as a potentially economical deposit, with 160 000 tonnes of lithium.<ref>{{cite book |author=Czech Geological Survey |title=Mineral Commodity Summaries of the Czech Republic 2015 |url=http://www.geology.cz/extranet-eng/publications/online/mineral-commodity-summaries/mineral_comodity_summaries_2015.pdf |location=Prague |publisher=Czech Geological Survey |page=373 |date=October 2015 |isbn=978-80-7075-904-2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170106015520/http://www.geology.cz/extranet-eng/publications/online/mineral-commodity-summaries/mineral_comodity_summaries_2015.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2017 |author-link=Czech Geological Survey}}</ref> In December 2019, Finnish mining company Keliber Oy reported its Rapasaari lithium deposit has estimated proven and probable ore reserves of 5.280 million tonnes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kitco.com/news/2019-12-06/Ore-Reserve-grows-its-Finland-lithium-deposit-by-50.html |title=Ore Reserve grows its Finland lithium deposit by 50% |work=Kitco News |date=2019 |access-date=10 December 2019 |archive-date=10 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210073525/https://www.kitco.com/news/2019-12-06/Ore-Reserve-grows-its-Finland-lithium-deposit-by-50.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

In June 2010, ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys on [[Dry lake|dry]] [[salt lake]]s in western [[Afghanistan]] believing that large deposits of lithium are located there.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html?pagewanted=1&hp |title=U.S. Identifies Vast Riches of Minerals in Afghanistan |access-date=13 June 2010 |work=The New York Times |first=James |last=Risen |date=13 June 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617204210/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/14/world/asia/14minerals.html?pagewanted=1&hp |archive-date=17 June 2010}}</ref> These estimates are "based principally on old data, which was gathered mainly by the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]] during their [[Soviet occupation of Afghanistan|occupation of Afghanistan]] from 1979–1989".<ref>{{cite news |url=http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/natural_resources/article7149696.ece |location=London |work=The Times |title=Taleban zones mineral riches may rival Saudi Arabia says Pentagon |first1=Jeremy |last1=Page |first2=Michael |last2=Evans |date=15 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514140029/http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/natural_resources/article7149696.ece |archive-date=14 May 2011}}</ref> The [[The Pentagon|Department of Defense]] estimated the lithium reserves in Afghanistan to amount to the ones in Bolivia and dubbed it as a potential "Saudi-Arabia of lithium".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hosp |first=Gerald |title=Afghanistan: die konfliktreichen Bodenschätze |url=https://www.nzz.ch/wirtschaft/afghanistan-die-konfliktreichen-bodenschaetze-ld.1642056 |access-date=2021-09-01 |website=[[Neue Zürcher Zeitung]] |date=30 August 2021 |language=de |archive-date=8 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210908222650/https://www.nzz.ch/wirtschaft/afghanistan-die-konfliktreichen-bodenschaetze-ld.1642056?reduced=true |url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Cornwall]], England, the presence of brine rich in lithium was well known due to the region's historic [[Mining in Cornwall and Devon|mining industry]], and private investors have conducted tests to investigate potential lithium extraction in this area.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bliss |first1=Dominic |title=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/science-and-technology/2021/05/in-cornwall-ruinous-tin-mines-are-yielding-battery-grade-lithium-heres-what-that-could-mean |website=In Cornwall, ruinous tin and copper mines are yielding battery-grade lithium. Here's what that means. |access-date=June 13, 2021 |date=May 28, 2021 |archive-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613173804/https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/science-and-technology/2021/05/in-cornwall-ruinous-tin-mines-are-yielding-battery-grade-lithium-heres-what-that-could-mean}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Cornwall lithium deposits 'globally significant' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cornwall-54188071 |access-date=June 13, 2021 |agency=BBC |date=September 17, 2020 |archive-date=13 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613173803/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-cornwall-54188071 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Biological ===
{{See also|Potassium in biology|Sodium in biology|Soil salinity}}
Lithium is found in trace amount in numerous plants, plankton, and invertebrates, at concentrations of 69 to 5,760 [[parts per billion]] (ppb). In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower, and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb.<ref name="enc" /> Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chassard-Bouchaud |first1=C. |last2=Galle |first2=P. |last3=Escaig |first3=F. |last4=Miyawaki |first4=M. |title=Bioaccumulation of lithium by marine organisms in European, American, and Asian coastal zones: microanalytic study using secondary ion emission |journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série III |volume=299 |issue=18 |pages=719–24 |date=1984 |pmid=6440674}}</ref> Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms is unknown.<ref name="enc">{{cite web |url=http://www.enclabs.com/lithium.html |access-date=15 October 2010 |title=Some Facts about Lithium |publisher=ENC Labs |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710191644/http://www.enclabs.com/lithium.html |archive-date=10 July 2011}}</ref>
Lithium [[Composition of the human body|concentrations in human tissue]] averages about 24 [[Parts per billion|ppb]] (4 ppb in [[blood]], and 1.3 [[Parts per million|ppm]] in [[bone]]).<ref name="Emsley2011">{{cite book |last=Emsley |first=John |author-link=John Emsley |title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC&pg=PA290 |access-date=17 June 2016 |date=25 August 2011 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-960563-7 |pages=290–298 |archive-date=26 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230826192732/https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC&pg=PA290 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Lithium is easily absorbed by [[plant]]s<ref name="Emsley2011" /> and lithium concentration in plant tissue is typically around 1 [[Part per million|ppm]].<ref name="Lithium and Cell Physiology 1990 Ch. 3 Lithium in Plants" /> Some plant [[Family (biology)|families]] [[Bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]] more lithium than others.<ref name="Lithium and Cell Physiology 1990 Ch. 3 Lithium in Plants" /> [[Dry weight]] lithium concentrations for members of the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Solanaceae]] (which includes [[potato]]es and [[tomato]]es), for instance, can be as high as 30 ppm while this can be as low as 0.05 ppb for [[Corn (grain)|corn grains]].<ref name="Emsley2011" />
Studies of lithium concentrations in mineral-rich soil give ranges between around 0.1 and 50−100 [[Parts per million|ppm]], with some concentrations as high as 100−400 ppm, although it is unlikely that all of it is available for uptake by [[plant]]s.<ref name="Lithium and Cell Physiology 1990 Ch. 3 Lithium in Plants">{{cite book |editor-last=Bach |editor-first=Ricardo O. |editor-last2=Gallicchio |editor-first2=Vincent S. |title=Lithium and Cell Physiology |publisher=Springer New York |publication-place=New York, NY |year=1990 |isbn=978-1-4612-7967-9 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-3324-4 |pages=25–46 |s2cid=44374126}}</ref>
Lithium accumulation does not appear to affect the [[essential nutrient]] composition of plants.<ref name="Lithium and Cell Physiology 1990 Ch. 3 Lithium in Plants" /> Tolerance to lithium varies by plant species and typically parallels [[Halotolerance|sodium tolerance]]; [[maize]] and [[Rhodes grass]], for example, are highly tolerant to lithium injury while [[avocado]] and [[soybean]] are very sensitive.<ref name="Lithium and Cell Physiology 1990 Ch. 3 Lithium in Plants" /> Similarly, lithium at concentrations of 5 ppm reduces [[seed germination]] in some species (e.g. [[Oryza sativa|Asian rice]] and [[chickpea]]) but not in others (e.g. [[barley]] and [[wheat]]).<ref name="Lithium and Cell Physiology 1990 Ch. 3 Lithium in Plants" />

Many of lithium's major biological effects can be explained by its competition with other ions.<ref name="Jakobsson Argüello-Miranda Chiu Fazal pp. 587–604">{{cite journal |last1=Jakobsson |first1=Eric |last2=Argüello-Miranda |first2=Orlando |last3=Chiu |first3=See-Wing |last4=Fazal |first4=Zeeshan |last5=Kruczek |first5=James |last6=Nunez-Corrales |first6=Santiago |last7=Pandit |first7=Sagar |last8=Pritchet |first8=Laura |title=Towards a Unified Understanding of Lithium Action in Basic Biology and its Significance for Applied Biology |journal=[[The Journal of Membrane Biology]] |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=250 |issue=6 |date=2017-11-10 |issn=0022-2631 |doi=10.1007/s00232-017-9998-2 |pmid=29127487 |pages=587–604 |pmc=5696506}}</ref>
The [[Monovalent ion|monovalent]] lithium [[Cation|ion]] {{chem|Li|+}} competes with other ions such as [[sodium]] (immediately below lithium on the [[periodic table]]), which like lithium is also a monovalent [[alkali metal]].
Lithium also competes with [[Bivalent (chemistry)|bivalent]] [[magnesium]] ions, whose [[ionic radius]] (86 [[Picometre|pm]]) is approximately that of the lithium ion<ref name="Jakobsson Argüello-Miranda Chiu Fazal pp. 587–604" /> (90 pm).
Mechanisms that transport sodium across cellular membranes also transport lithium.
For instance, [[sodium channel]]s (both [[Voltage-gated sodium channel|voltage-gated]] and [[Epithelial sodium channel|epithelial]]) are particularly major pathways of entry for lithium.<ref name="Jakobsson Argüello-Miranda Chiu Fazal pp. 587–604" />
Lithium ions can also [[permeate]] through [[ligand-gated ion channel]]s as well as cross both [[Nuclear membrane|nuclear]] and [[Mitochondrion|mitochondrial]] [[membrane]]s.<ref name="Jakobsson Argüello-Miranda Chiu Fazal pp. 587–604" />
Like sodium, lithium can enter and partially block (although not [[permeate]]) [[potassium channel]]s and [[calcium channel]]s.<ref name="Jakobsson Argüello-Miranda Chiu Fazal pp. 587–604" />
The biological effects of lithium are many and varied but its [[Mechanism of action|mechanisms of action]] are only partially understood.<ref name="Alda pp. 661–670">{{cite journal |last=Alda |first=M |title=Lithium in the treatment of bipolar disorder: pharmacology and pharmacogenetics |journal=[[Molecular Psychiatry]] |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]] |volume=20 |issue=6 |date=17 February 2015 |issn=1359-4184 |doi=10.1038/mp.2015.4 |pages=661–670 |pmid=25687772 |pmc=5125816}}</ref>
For instance, studies of [[Lithium (medication)|lithium-treated]] patients with [[bipolar disorder]] show that, among many other effects, lithium partially reverses [[telomere]] [[Telomere shortening|shortening]] in these patients and also increases mitochondrial function, although how lithium produces these [[pharmacological effect]]s is not understood.<ref name="Alda pp. 661–670" /><ref name="Martinsson Wei Xu Melas 2013 pp. e261–e261">{{cite journal |last1=Martinsson |first1=L |last2=Wei |first2=Y |last3=Xu |first3=D |last4=Melas |first4=P A |last5=Mathé |first5=A A |last6=Schalling |first6=M |last7=Lavebratt |first7=C |last8=Backlund |first8=L |title=Long-term lithium treatment in bipolar disorder is associated with longer leukocyte telomeres |journal=[[Translational Psychiatry]] |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]] |volume=3 |issue=5 |year=2013 |issn=2158-3188 |doi=10.1038/tp.2013.37 |pages=e261– |pmid=23695236 |pmc=3669924}}</ref>
Even the exact mechanisms involved in [[lithium toxicity]] are not fully understood.