Editing Malcolm MacDonald (section)

=== Diplomacy with Brunei ===
Churchill's war cabinet planned to unify Malaya and the British Borneo territories and resign afterward, with the goal of securing victory for the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in 1944.{{Efn|[[Cecil Clementi]] was appointed British Agent for Sarawak and North Borneo, High Commissioner for Brunei and the [[Malay States]], and [[Governor of the Straits Settlements]], which included [[Labuan]].{{Sfn|Tarling|1971}}|name=clementi}} Part of the reason MacDonald was appointed to a position in Southeast Asia just after the [[Malayan Union]] proposal failed was because the Malay community there opposed the Sultans' ceding of their authority to the British Crown. He warned his government not to interfere in Brunei's domestic issues, fearing that similar feelings may emerge there.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=397}}

Despite its modest size, Brunei was considered a valuable asset for federation plans due to its sudden wealth from the [[Seria oil field|1929 oil discovery]], which was seen as essential for developing a balanced economy in a bigger state in [[North Borneo]]. MacDonald promoted a loose [[federation]] model that suggested a three states, one country solution, although he also favoured maintaining Brunei's [[sovereignty]]. He opposed changing the [[Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin#1905–1906 Supplementary Treaty|1905–1906 Supplementary Treaty]] and recommended the Colonial Office not to associate Brunei with North Borneo or Sarawak as the deadline of 1 July 1946, for the restoration of civilian administration drew near. Rather, he suggested administratively uniting Brunei with a nearby colony without undermining its constitutional standing; as a result, Brunei came under the jurisdiction of the [[Crown Colony of Sarawak#Administration|Governor of Sarawak]] as High Commissioner on 1 May 1948.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=397–398}}
[[File:Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin and Malcolm MacDonald.jpg|left|thumb|During the silver jubilee celebrations for Ahmad Tajuddin (left) in September 1949, Malcolm (right) sending his greetings|200x200px]]
Then-Colonial Secretary MacDonald was aware of Brunei's problems in 1940, such as the Sultan Ahmad Tajuddin's postponed official coronation, which he approved despite reports that [[List of administrators of British Brunei|British Resident]] John Graham Black was to blame for the delays. Historian Robert Reece calls MacDonald's writings about the Ahmad Tajuddin, "scurrilous," yet the Sultan was ahead of his time in advocating for more political and financial independence. In his capacities as High Commissioner to Brunei and Governor-General of Malaya, he first visited Brunei on 15 July 1946, and there he experienced [[Nationalism|nationalist]] emotions.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=398–399}}

MacDonald had to reassure Ahmad Tajuddin during a visit in July 1947 that administrative adjustments would be the only changes brought about by a planned union between Sarawak and Brunei; Brunei would not be merged into the [[Crown Colony of Sarawak]]. In September 1949, after the Sultan's unwillingness to attend the festivities owing to delays in the completion of his new palace, he returned to Brunei in his capacity as the British Commissioner-General for Southeast Asia. After being eventually convinced by Abang Haji Mustapha, the Malay chief of Sarawak, the Sultan attended, was knighted by [[List of British monarchs|King]] [[George VI]], and conveyed his thanks and concerns in a way that MacDonald described as both diplomatically savvy and comically cunning.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=399–400}}

When Ahmad Tajuddin and MacDonald finally met, he was traveling to [[England]] to renegotiate the 1959 Agreement and oil royalties. The meeting took place at MacDonald's home in Singapore. In addition to suggesting that [[Joseph Conrad]]'s [[Outcast of the Islands]] be filmed in Brunei, he also pitched a movie on the Sultan, who was well-known for his passion for movies to film director [[Carol Reed]]. But soon after the sudden death of the Sultan in 1950, he had to step in and approve the nomination of Omar Ali Saifuddien III, the younger brother of the deceased Sultan, to succeed him.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=400–401}}

The British administration's accession to the Brunei monarchy was mostly uneventful, but for the obstacle [[Gerard MacBryan]] presented. He asserted that the late Ahmad Tajuddin had given him permission to represent his interests. MacBryan had been hired as a political consultant on international matters by the Sultan, with responsibility for negotiating Brunei's oil interests with [[Standard Oil]] and fighting for the Sultan's rights in the United States. But MacBryan's ambitions to use his relationship with Ahmad Tajuddin to achieve substantial power were dashed, and his attempt to establish himself as Brunei's de facto ruler was quickly abandoned. Despite MacBryan's obviously genuine allegations, MacDonald handled the succession crisis by persuading London that MacBryan was nothing more than a scam. He expressed his admiration for Omar Ali Saifuddien III during the new Sultan's coronation, stating that he believed he was the best option for Brunei and for fostering closer connections with Britain.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=401–402}}
[[File:Malcolm MacDonald and Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin.jpg|left|thumb|The 1955 discussion between Omar Ali on the left and MacDonald on the right at the [[Old Lapau|Lapau]]]]
Given that the new Sultan had worked with the British on plans for Brunei and its neighbours, including the 1948 administrative unification of Sarawak and Brunei, MacDonald's support for him was calculated. Tensions resulted from local discontent with Sarawak's administrative power, even though Omar Ali had initially supported the unification. Historians speculate that Omar Ali eventual resistance to the merger is a reflection of a frequent strategy used by Bruneian Sultans to survive when facing stronger imperial powers.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=402–403}}

Records from the British Colonial Office may not always demonstrate MacDonald's sincerity in his devotion to Brunei and Omar Ali, necessitating a closer examination of the parties concerned. An important episode that embarrassed him was when, soon after his rise, Omar Ali openly reaffirmed Brunei's claim to disputed territory. MacDonald intervened to recast the event, saying it was an error and clearing the Sultan of any culpability, in order to lessen the diplomatic impact and save both the Sultan and British interests. The episode brought to light Sultan's long-standing resentment over Brunei's lost territory, particularly [[Labuan Island]] and [[Limbang]]. He publicly disagreed with Sarawak's authority and continued to bring up the matter through British diplomatic channels in spite of the passing of time.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=403–404}}

In order to further his vision of a federation of the three British provinces in North Borneo, MacDonald had to negotiate his relationship with the newly ascendant Omar Ali. Conflicting interests, especially the Sultan's, caused the federation plan to collapse despite MacDonald's best efforts; it only became reality as the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, excluding Brunei. With the establishment of the Commissioner-General for Southeast Asia in 1948 to supervise communications, defence, and regional development and provide guidance on deeper political integration, British policy sought to promote cooperation among its Southeast Asian holdings, centred around Singapore.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=404}}

As the initial Commissioner-General, MacDonald vigorously worked toward the establishment of an independent Dominion that included the [[Federation of Malaya]], Singapore, Sarawak, North Borneo, and Brunei. In order to accomplish his goal of a political federation of Borneo territories ultimately integrating with Malaya, he put cooperative departments, frequent conferences, and officer exchanges into practice. Omar Ali dismissed conjectures on a possible federation, highlighting Brunei's independence and sensitivity. The Secretary of State counselled MacDonald to move gradually and refrain from imposing an external federation, letting Brunei become self-governing.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=404–405}}

Brunei's unwillingness to join a federation that challenged its sovereignty and would potentially dilute its oil wealth was a major factor in the Federation ideas' failure. Tensions were increased when Brunei refused to share its resources for the development of less developed bordering regions, leading to the Sarawak–Brunei administrative union in 1948. The notion of federation was abandoned in spite of MacDonald's efforts and diplomatic endeavours due to his lack of governmental authority and the shifting political climate in Britain, which included Malaya's independence movement and changes in British policy. After receiving a warm reception in Brunei and attending important royal ceremonies, his vision began to wane as new political realities surfaced.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=406}}

Omar Ali gave MacDonald a cordial welcome, but turned down his request for money to help North Borneo. This decision was made in light of Brunei's recent $100 million loan to the Malaysian Federation and its unwillingness to support its close neighbours. Disappointed, the Sarawak and North Borneo governors turned their backs on Brunei and concentrated on fortifying their own relationships. When he visited the [[Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque]] in December 1958, he was allowed into the Sultan's private rooms, where they talked about the possibility of Brunei's royal children receiving an education in England. The [[Queen Damit of Brunei|Raja Isteri Damit]]'s unwillingness to part from the children (Princes Hassanal Bolkiah and [[Prince Mohamed Bolkiah|Mohamed Bolkiah]]) caused this arrangement, which had been decided upon beforehand, to be abandoned; the kids were thereafter enrolled in a [[Kuala Lumpur]] school. British authorities saw this change in education as Omar Ali's desire to maintain his ties to Malaya.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=407–409}}

British authorities criticised MacDonald for deceiving the [[Prime Minister of Malaysia|Malayan Prime Minister]] [[Tunku Abdul Rahman]] about a possible super federation combining Malaya, Singapore, and the Borneo territories during talks with the Sultan of Brunei and Malayan Prime Minister. Omar Ali became concerned about this and in July 1963 rejected the idea for [[Malaysian Federation]], therefore proving his independence and upsetting the objectives of its main proponents. Despite his support for Malaysia, MacDonald was wary of pressuring Brunei, Sarawak, or North Borneo to join, and cautioned the British against putting more pressure on Brunei following Omar Ali's denial.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=409–410}}

Following his retirement from government employment in July 1969, [[Harold Wilson]]'s [[Labour government, 1964–1970|administration]] named MacDonald as a traveling envoy, allowing him to carry on serving Britain's interests by resolving diplomatic disputes between the United Kingdom and Brunei. Omar Ali, a close friend of his, stepped down from the Sultan in 1967 but continued to have influence. [[Constitutional history of Brunei|1967 constitutional negotiations]] in London were tense because of a disagreement between the Sultan and [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs|Secretary of State]] [[Herbert Bowden, Baron Aylestone|Herbert Bowden]], who had little regard for the monarch. MacDonald criticised Bowden for his contemptuous behaviour toward the retired Sultan.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=410–411}}

Early in 1968, when the new [[List of high commissioners of the United Kingdom to Brunei|British High Commissioner]]-designate [[Arthur Adair]] was rejected by Omar Ali and the Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah, MacDonald was asked to mediate a diplomatic deadlock between Brunei and Britain. The discussions between the United Kingdom and Brunei had come to a standstill for over half a year. After visiting the Brunei palace and learning about Omar Ali's complaints, he admitted that the ex-Sultan had not received proper treatment on his last trip to London. He also concurred that by moving the previous High Commissioner without first informing the Sultan, Britain could have violated the terms of the 1959 Agreement. By means of delicate diplomatic manoeuvres, MacDonald managed to win back the trust of the former Sultan and facilitate the restoration of regular ties between the two countries.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=411–412}}

MacDonald was instrumental in handling the sensitive issue in reaction to Britain's decision to remove its soldiers from Brunei's protectorate status by December 1970. He recommended against hastening the notification of troop departure because he was aware of the prospective consequences, which included Brunei's potential economic reprisal and the termination of British diplomatic ties. Because of his effective negotiating, the negotiations were postponed and Frank Webber was temporarily reinstated, facilitating a more seamless introduction of Adair to the Sultan. In contrast to people like [[Anthony Abell]], who aimed to modernise Brunei's political system, MacDonald concentrated on preserving stability and appeasing the [[authoritarian]] inclinations of Omar Ali. This was in contrast to other British officials who were working for democratic reforms in Brunei.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=412–413}}

During significant political changes, MacDonald played a crucial role in upholding Brunei's independence and the Sultan's right to reign. In contrast to Brunei's democratic reformers such as Abell, he supported Omar Ali's opposition to reform, upholding the Sultan's power and opposing ideas such as the [[North Borneo Federation|Federation of North Borneo]] and Malaysia. MacDonald, honouring the Sultan's desires, successfully postponed Brunei's soldier pullout until 1971 in order to prevent instability in the area, even though Britain had intended to remove its troops and abolish Brunei's protectorate status by 1970. His efforts eventually resulted in a change of leadership in Britain, which paved the way for a revised 1971 deal that gave Brunei complete internal self-government along with continuous British defence backing.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=413–414}}

Despite difficulties brought on by Omar Ali's intransigence and Malaysia's covert assistance for Brunei's former rebels, MacDonald remained an important figure in Brunei's affairs under Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah. He revived his prior proposal in 1968 and 1974 for a federation of the three northern Borneo states, headed nominally by the Sultan of Brunei. This concept was in stark contrast to Bruneian and British authorities' antiquated and impossible ideal of a unified "[[Kalimantan Utara]]," which it mimicked. In the end, the idea was rejected as impractical since the Sultan was against being a member of such a federation.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=414–415}}

MacDonald persisted in supporting the notion of a looser federation between Brunei and Malaysia despite Brunei's choice to avoid Malaysia, acknowledging the potential for eventual economic and cultural similarities to bring the two countries together. Although he thought Brunei would eventually have to join Malaysia, he was against Malaysia having any kind of power over the Sultanate. He cautioned Brunei against being forced to consider a merger and urged against it. His participation at Raja Isteri Damit's burial on his last visit to Brunei in 1979 demonstrated the close personal relationships he had formed over the years. He never had the chance to meet Omar Ali and Hassanal Bolkiah in person, but he kept in regular connection with both of them.{{Sfn|Hussainmiya|2014|p=415–416}}