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Marshallese language
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==Phonology== ===Consonants=== Marshallese has a large consonant inventory, and each consonant has some type of secondary articulation ([[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]], [[velarization]], or [[Labialization|rounding]]).<ref name="w1">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=1}}</ref> The palatalized consonants are regarded as "light", and the velarized and rounded consonants are regarded as "heavy", with the rounded consonants being both velarized and [[labialization|labialized]].<ref name="MEDSounds" /> (This contrast is similar to that between "slender" and "broad" consonants in [[Goidelic languages]], or between "soft" and "hard" consonants in [[Slavic languages]].) The "light" consonants are considered more relaxed articulations. <ref name="MEDSounds" /> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+Consonant phonemes of Marshallese ! rowspan="3" | ! colspan="2" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]] ! colspan="3" |[[Coronal consonant|Coronal]] ! colspan="2" |[[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]] |- !<small>Light</small> !<small>Heavy</small> !<small>Light</small> ! colspan="2" |<small>Heavy</small> ! colspan="2" |<small>Heavy</small> |- !{{small|[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]]}} !{{small|[[Velarization|Velarized]]}} !{{small|[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]]}} !{{small|[[Velarization|Velarized]]}} !{{small|[[Labialization|Labialized]]}} !{{small|(Velar)}} !{{small|[[Labialization|Labialized]]}} |- ![[Stop consonant|Stop]] |{{IPA link|pʲ}} |{{IPA link|pˠ}} |{{IPA link|tʲ}} |{{IPA link|tˠ}} | |{{IPA link|k}} |{{IPA link|kʷ}} |- ![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] |{{IPA link|mʲ}} |{{IPA link|mˠ}} |{{IPA link|nʲ}} |{{IPA link|nˠ}} |{{IPA link|nʷ}} |{{IPA link|ŋ}} |{{IPA link|ŋʷ}} |- ![[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]] | | |{{IPA link|rʲ}} |{{IPA link|rˠ}} |{{IPA link|rʷ}} | | |- ![[Lateral consonant|Lateral]] | | |{{IPA link|lʲ}} |{{IPA link|lˠ}} |{{IPA link|lʷ}} | | |- ![[Glide consonant|Glide]] | | |{{IPA link|j}} | | |({{IPA link|ɰ}}) |{{IPA link|w}} |} Although Marshallese has no [[consonant voicing and devoicing|voicing]] contrast in consonants,<ref name="w1" /> stops may be allophonically [[partial voicing|partially voiced]] ({{IPA|[p → b]}}, {{IPA|[t → d]}}, {{IPA|[k → ɡ]}}),<ref name="c14">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=14}}</ref> when they are between vowels and not [[geminated]]. (Technically, partially voiced stops would be {{IPA|[p̬~b̥]}}, {{IPA|[t̬~d̥]}}, {{IPA|[k̬~ɡ̊]}}, but this article uses voiced transcriptions {{IPAblink|b}}, {{IPAblink|d}}, {{IPAblink|ɡ}} for simplicity.)<ref name="alph" /> Final consonants are often [[unreleased stop|unreleased]].<ref name="c14" /> Glides {{IPA|/j ɰ w/}} vanish in many environments, with surrounding vowels assimilating their [[backness]] and [[roundedness]].<ref name="b21-22" /> That is motivated by the limited surface distribution of these phonemes as well as other evidence that backness and roundedness are not specified phonemically for Marshallese vowels.<ref name="b21-22" /> In fact, the consonant {{IPA|/ɰ/}} never surfaces phonetically but is used to explain the preceding phenomenon.<ref name="c14"/> ({{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}} may surface phonetically in word-initial and word-final positions and, even then, not consistently.<ref name="c14" />) Bender (1968) explains that it was once believed there were six bilabial consonants because of observed surface realizations, {{IPA|/p pʲ pʷ m mʲ mʷ/}}, but he determined that two of these, {{IPA|/p m/}}, were actually allophones of {{IPA|/pʲ mʲ/}} respectively before front vowels and allophones of {{IPA|/pˠ mˠ/}} respectively before back vowels.<ref name="b16">{{harvp|Bender|1968|p=16}}</ref> Before front vowels, the velarized [[labial consonant]]s {{IPA|/pˠ mˠ/}} actually tend to have rounded (labiovelarized) articulations {{IPA|[pʷ mʷ]}}, but they remain unrounded on the phonemic level, and there are no distinct {{IPA|/pʷ mʷ/}} phonemes.<ref name="b16" /><ref name="bxvi-xvii">{{harvp|Bender|1969|pp=xvi-xvii}}</ref> The pronunciation guide used by ''Naan'' (2014) still recognizes {{IPA|[p m]}} as allophone symbols separate from {{IPA|[pʲ pˠ mʲ mˠ]}} in these same conditions while recognizing that there are only palatalized and velarized phonemes.<ref name="naan" /> This article uses {{IPA|[pʲ pˠ mʲ mˠ]}} in phonetic transcriptions. The consonant {{IPA|/tʲ/}} may be phonetically realized as {{IPAblink|tʲ}}, {{IPA|[t͡sʲ]}}, {{IPAblink|sʲ}}, {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}, {{IPAblink|ɕ}}, {{IPAblink|c}}, or {{IPAblink|ç}} (or any of their [[voiced consonant|voiced]] variants {{IPAblink|dʲ}}, {{IPA|[d͡zʲ]}}, {{IPAblink|zʲ}}, {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}, {{IPAblink|ʑ}}, {{IPAblink|ɟ}}, or {{IPAblink|ʝ}}), in [[free variation]].<ref name="MEDSounds" /><ref name="c14" /><ref name="alph" /> Word-internally it usually assumes a [[voiced consonant|voiced]] [[fricative consonant|fricative]] articulation as {{IPAblink|zʲ}} (or {{IPAblink|ʑ}} or {{IPAblink|ʝ}}) but not when [[gemination|geminated]].<ref name="alph" /> {{IPA|/tʲ/}} is used to adapt foreign [[sibilant]]s into Marshallese. In phonetic transcription, this article uses {{IPAblink|tʲ}} and {{IPAblink|zʲ}} as voiceless and voiced allophones of the same phoneme. Marshallese has no distinct {{IPA|/tʷ/}} phoneme. The [[dorsal consonant]]s {{IPA|/k ŋ kʷ ŋʷ/}} are usually [[velar consonant|velar]] but with the tongue a little farther back {{IPA|[k̠ ɡ̠ ŋ̠ k̠ʷ ɡ̠ʷ ŋ̠ʷ]}}, making them somewhere between velar and [[uvular consonant|uvular]] in articulation.<ref name="alph" /> All dorsal phonemes are "heavy" (velarized or rounded), and none are "light" (palatalized).<ref name="MEDSounds" /> As stated before, the [[palatal consonant]] articulations {{IPAblink|c}}, {{IPAblink|ɟ}}, {{IPAblink|ç}} and {{IPAblink|ʝ}} are treated as allophones of the palatalized ''[[coronal consonant|coronal]]'' obstruent {{IPA|/tʲ/}}, even though palatal consonants are physically dorsal. For simplicity, this article uses unmarked {{IPA|[k ɡ ŋ kʷ ɡʷ ŋʷ]}} in phonetic transcription. Bender (1969) describes {{IPA|/nˠ/}} and {{IPA|/nʷ/}} as being 'dark' ''r''-colored, but is not more specific.<ref name="bxvii">{{harvp|Bender|1969|p=xvii}}</ref> The Marshallese-English Dictionary (MED) describes these as heavy [[dental nasal]]s.<ref name="MEDSounds" /> Consonants {{IPA|/rʲ/}}, {{IPA|/rˠ/}} and {{IPA|/rʷ/}} are all [[coronal consonant]]s and full [[trill consonant|trill]]s. {{IPA|/rˠ/}} is similar to [[Spanish language|Spanish]] {{lang|es|rr}} with a trill position just behind the [[alveolar ridge]], a [[postalveolar trill]] {{IPA|[r̠ˠ]}},<ref name="bxvii" /> but {{IPA|/rʲ/}} is a palatalized [[dental trill]] {{IPA|[r̪ʲ]}}, articulated further forward behind the [[front teeth]].<ref name="alph" /> The MED and Willson (2003) describe the rhotic consonants as "[[retroflex consonant|retroflex]]", but are not clear how this relates to their dental or alveolar trill positions.<ref name="MEDSounds" /><ref name="w6">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=6}}</ref> (See [[retroflex trill]].) This article uses {{IPAblink|rʲ}}, {{IPAblink|rˠ}} and {{IPAblink|rʷ}} in phonetic transcription. The heavy lateral consonants {{IPA|/lˠ/}} and {{IPA|/lʷ/}} are [[dark l|dark ''l'']] like in English ''feel'', articulated {{IPAblink|ɫ}} and {{IPAblink|ɫʷ}} respectively.<ref name="alph" /> This article uses {{IPAblink|lˠ}} and {{IPAblink|lʷ}} in phonetic transcription. The velarized consonants (and, by extension, the rounded consonants) may be velarized or [[pharyngealization|pharyngealized]]<ref name="MEDSounds" /> like the [[emphatic consonant]]s in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] or [[Mizrahi Hebrew]]. ===Vowels=== Marshallese has a [[vertical vowel system]] of just four [[vowel]] [[phoneme]]s, each with several [[allophone]]s depending on the surrounding consonants.<ref name="w2">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=2}}</ref> On the phonemic level, while Bender (1969) and Choi (1992) agree that the vowel phonemes are distinguished by [[vowel height|height]], they describe the abstract nature of these phonemes differently, with Bender treating the [[front vowel|front]] unrounded surface realizations as their relaxed state that becomes altered by proximity of velarized or rounded consonants,<ref name="bxiii-xvii">{{harvp|Bender|1969|pp=xiii-xvii}}</ref> while Choi uses [[central vowel]] symbols in a neutral fashion to notate the abstract phonemes and completely different [[front vowel|front]], [[back vowel|back]] and [[roundedness|rounded]] vowel symbols for surface realizations. Bender (1968, 1969), MED (1976) and Willson (2003) recognize four vowel phonemes, but Choi (1992) observes only three of the phonemes as having a stable quality, but theorizes that there may be a historical process of reduction from four to three, and otherwise ignores the fourth phoneme. For phonemic transcription of vowels, this article recognizes four phonemes and uses the front unrounded vowel {{IPA|/æ ɛ e i/}} notation of the MED, following the approach of Bender (1969) in treating the front vowel surface realizations as the representative phonemes. On the phonetic level, Bender (1968), MED (1976), Choi (1992), Willson (2003) and ''Naan'' (2014) notate some Marshallese vowel surface realizations differently from one another, and they disagree on how to characterize the [[vowel height]]s of the underlying phonemes, with Willson (2003) taking the most divergent approach in treating the four heights as actually two heights each with the added presence (+ATR) or absence (-ATR) of [[advanced tongue root]]. Bender (1968) assigns central vowel symbols for the surface realizations that neighbor velarized consonants, but the MED (1976), Choi (1992) and Willson (2003) largely assign back unrounded vowel symbols for these, with the exception that the MED uses {{IPAblink|ə}} rather than cardinal {{IPAblink|ɤ}} for the [[close-mid back unrounded vowel]], and Choi (1992) and Willson (2003) use {{IPAblink|a}} rather than cardinal {{IPAblink|ɑ}} for the [[open back unrounded vowel]]. ''Naan'' (2014) is the only reference providing a [[vowel trapezium]] for its own vowels, and differs especially from the other vowel models in splitting the front allophones of {{IPA|/i/}} into two realizations ({{IPAblink|ɪ}} before consonants and {{IPAblink|i}} in open syllables), merging the front allophones of {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} as {{IPAblink|ɛ}} before consonants and {{IPAblink|e}} in open syllables, merging the rounded allophones of {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} as {{IPAblink|o}}, and indicating the front allophone of {{IPA|/æ/}} as a close-mid central unrounded vowel {{IPAblink|ɘ}}, a realization more raised even than the front allophone of the normally higher {{IPA|/ɛ/}}. For phonetic notation of vowel surface realizations, this article largely uses the MED's notation, but uses only cardinal symbols for back unrounded vowels. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+Marshallese vowel phonemes and surface realizations |- ! colspan="4" | Bender<ref name="b17">{{harvp|Bender|1968|p=17}}</ref> ! rowspan="7" | ! colspan="5" | MED<ref name="MEDSounds">{{harvp|Abo|Bender|Capelle|DeBrum|1976|loc=4. The Sounds of Marshallese}}</ref> ! rowspan="7" | ! colspan="5" | Choi<ref name="c15">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=15}}</ref> ! rowspan="7" | ! colspan="4" | Willson<ref name="w3">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=3}}</ref> ! rowspan="7" | ! colspan="4" | ''Naan''<ref name="naan">{{cite web |title=free Marshallese-English dictionary |url=https://sites.google.com/site/lalenaan/ |work=Naan |date=Aug 1, 2014 |author=Nik Willson}}</ref> |- style="font-size: 75%;" ! rowspan="2" | Height ! colspan="2" | Unrnd. ! Rnd. ! rowspan="2" | Height ! rowspan="2" | Phon. ! colspan="2" | Unrnd. ! Rnd. ! rowspan="2" | Height ! rowspan="2" | Phon. ! colspan="2" | Unrnd. ! Rnd. ! rowspan="2" | Height ! colspan="2" | Unrnd. ! Rnd. ! colspan="2" | Unrnd. ! Rnd. |- style="font-size: 75%;" ! Frt. ! colspan="2" | Back ! Frt. ! colspan="2" | Back ! Frt. ! colspan="2" | Back ! Frt. ! colspan="2" | Back ! Frt. ! colspan="2" | Back |- | [[Close vowel|Close]] | {{IPAblink|i}} || {{IPAblink|ɨ}} || {{IPAblink|u}} | [[Close vowel|Close]] | {{lang|mh|{i}}} | {{IPAblink|i}} || {{IPAblink|ɯ}} || {{IPAblink|u}} | [[Close vowel|Close]] | /{{IPA link|ɨ}}/ | {{IPAblink|i}} || {{IPAblink|ɯ}} || {{IPAblink|u}} | {{nobr|+hi, +ATR}} | {{IPAblink|i}} || {{IPAblink|ɯ}} || {{IPAblink|u}} | [{{IPA link|ɪ}},{{IPA link|i}}] || {{IPAblink|ɪ̈}} || {{IPAblink|u}} |- | [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]] | {{IPAblink|ɪ}} || {{IPAblink|ɪ̈}}|| {{IPAblink|ʊ}} | rowspan="2" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]] | {{lang|mh|{ȩ}}} | {{IPAblink|e}} || {{IPAblink|ə}} || {{IPAblink|o}} ! colspan="5" | | {{nobr|+hi, -ATR}} | {{IPAblink|ɪ}} || {{IPAblink|ɤ}} || {{IPAblink|ʊ}} | rowspan="2" | [{{IPA link|ɛ}},{{IPA link|e}}] || {{IPAblink|ɘ}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPAblink|o}} |- | [[Mid vowel|Mid]] | {{IPAblink|e}} || {{IPAblink|ə}} || {{IPAblink|o}} | {{lang|mh|{e}}} | {{IPAblink|ɛ}} || {{IPAblink|ʌ}} || {{IPAblink|ɔ}} | [[Mid vowel|Mid]] | /{{IPA link|ə}}/ | {{IPAblink|e}} || {{IPAblink|ʌ}} || {{IPAblink|o}} | {{nobr|-hi, +ATR}} | {{IPAblink|e}} || {{IPAblink|ʌ}} || {{IPAblink|o}} | {{IPAblink|ʌ}} |- | [[Open vowel|Open]] | {{IPAblink|ɛ}} || {{IPAblink|a}} || {{IPAblink|ɔ}} | [[Open vowel|Open]] | {{lang|mh|{a}}} | {{IPAblink|æ}} || {{IPAblink|ɑ}} || {{IPAblink|ɒ}} | [[Open vowel|Open]] | /{{IPA link|ɐ}}/ | {{IPAblink|ɛ}} || {{IPAblink|a}} || {{IPAblink|ɔ}} | {{nobr|-hi, -ATR}} | {{IPAblink|ɛ}} || {{IPAblink|a}} || {{IPAblink|ɔ}} | {{IPAblink|ë}} || {{IPAblink|a}} || {{IPAblink|ɒ}} |} Superficially, 12 Marshallese vowel allophones appear in [[minimal pairs]], a common test for phonemicity.<ref name="b17" /> For example, {{IPA|[mʲæ]}} ({{lang|mh|mā}}, 'breadfruit'), {{IPA|[mʲɑ]}} ({{lang|mh|ma}}, 'but'), and {{IPA|[mʲɒ]}} ({{lang|mh|mọ}}, 'taboo') are separate Marshallese words.<ref name="b17" /> However, the uneven distribution of glide phonemes suggests that they underlyingly end with the glides (thus {{IPA|/mʲæj/}}, {{IPA|/mʲæɰ/}}, {{IPA|/mʲæw/}}).<ref name="b21-22">{{harvp|Bender|1968|pp=21–22}}</ref> When glides are taken into account, it emerges that there are only 4 vowel phonemes.<ref name="b21-22" /> When a vowel phoneme appears between consonants with different secondary articulations, the vowel often surfaces as a smooth transition from one vowel allophone to the other.<ref name="w3"/> For example, {{lang|mh|jok}} 'shy', phonemically {{IPA|/tʲɛkʷ/}}, is often realized phonetically as {{IPA|[tʲɛ͡ɔkʷ]}}.<ref name="w3" /> It follows that there are 24 possible short [[diphthong]]s in Marshallese:<ref name="w3" /> {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" align="center" ! Phoneme ! {{IPA|◌ʲ_◌ˠ}} ! {{IPA|◌ʲ_◌ʷ}} ! {{IPA|◌ˠ_◌ʲ}} ! {{IPA|◌ˠ_◌ʷ}} ! {{IPA|◌ʷ_◌ʲ}} ! {{IPA|◌ʷ_◌ˠ}} |- | {{IPA|/i/}} || {{IPA|[i͡ɯ]}} || {{IPA|[i͡u]}} || {{IPA|[ɯ͡i]}} || {{IPA|[ɯ͡u]}} || {{IPA|[u͡i]}} || {{IPA|[u͡ɯ]}} |- | {{IPA|/e/}} || {{IPA|[e͡ɤ]}} || {{IPA|[e͡o]}} || {{IPA|[ɤ͡e]}} || {{IPA|[ɤ͡o]}} || {{IPA|[o͡e]}} || {{IPA|[o͡ɤ]}} |- | {{IPA|/ɛ/}} || {{IPA|[ɛ͡ʌ]}} || {{IPA|[ɛ͡ɔ]}} || {{IPA|[ʌ͡ɛ]}} || {{IPA|[ʌ͡ɔ]}} || {{IPA|[ɔ͡ɛ]}} || {{IPA|[ɔ͡ʌ]}} |- | {{IPA|/æ/}} || {{IPA|[æ͡ɑ]}} || {{IPA|[æ͡ɒ]}} || {{IPA|[ɑ͡æ]}} || {{IPA|[ɑ͡ɒ]}} || {{IPA|[ɒ͡æ]}} || {{IPA|[ɒ͡ɑ]}} |} These diphthongs are the typical realizations of short vowels between two non-glide consonants, but in reality the diphthongs themselves are not phonemic, and short vowels between two consonants with different secondary articulations can be articulated as either a smooth diphthong (such as {{IPA|[ɛ͡ʌ]}}) or as a monophthong of one of the two vowel allophones (such as {{IPA|[ɛ ~ ʌ]}}), all in free variation. Bender (1968) also observes that when the would-be diphthong starts with a back rounded vowel {{IPA|[ɒ ɔ o u]}} and ends with a front unrounded vowel {{IPA|[æ ɛ e i]}}, then a vowel allophone associated with the back unrounded vowels (notated in this article as {{IPA|[ɑ ʌ ɤ ɯ]}}) may also occur in the vowel nucleus.<ref name="b22-23">{{harvp|Bender|1968|pp=22-23}}</ref> Because the cumulative visual complexity of notating so many diphthongs in phonetic transcriptions can make them more difficult to read, it is not uncommon to phonetically transcribe Marshallese vowel allophones only as one predominant monophthongal allophone, so that a word like {{IPA|[tʲɛ͡ɔkʷ]}} can be more simply transcribed as {{IPA|[tʲɔkʷ]}}, in a condensed fashion. Before Bender's (1968) discovery that Marshallese utilized a vertical vowel system, it was conventional to transcribe the language in this manner with a presumed inventory of 12 vowel monophthong phonemes,<ref name="b17-21">{{harvp|Bender|1968|pp=17-21}}</ref> and it remains in occasional use as a more condensed phonetic transcription.<ref name="c22-25">{{harvp|Choi|1992|pp=22-25}}</ref><ref name="w6" /> This article uses phonemic or diphthongal phonetic transcriptions for illustrative purposes, but for most examples it uses condensed phonetic transcription with the most relevant short vowel allophones roughly corresponding to [[#Orthography|Marshallese orthography]] as informed by the MED. Some syllables appear to contain long vowels: {{lang|mh|naaj}} 'future'.<ref name="w7" /> They are thought to contain an underlying glide ({{IPA|/j/}}, {{IPA|/ɰ/}} or {{IPA|/w/}}), which is not present phonetically.<ref name="w7-8">{{harvp|Willson|2003|pp=7–8}}</ref><ref name="b22">{{harvp|Bender|1968|p=22}}</ref> For instance, the underlying form of {{lang|mh|naaj}} is {{IPA|/nʲæɰætʲ/}}.<ref name="w7" /> Although the medial glide is not realized phonetically, it affects vowel quality; in a word like {{IPA|/nʲæɰætʲ/}}, the vowel transitions from {{IPAblink|æ}} to {{IPAblink|ɑ}} and then back to {{IPAblink|æ}}, as {{IPA|[nʲæ͡ɑɑ͡ætʲ]}}.<ref name="clong">{{harvp|Choi|1992|pp=70–73}}</ref> In condensed phonetic transcription, the same word can be expressed as {{IPA|[nʲɑɑtʲ]}} or {{IPA|[nʲɑːtʲ]}}.<ref name="b17-21" /><ref name="c22-25" /><ref name="w6" /> ===Phonotactics=== Syllables in Marshallese follow CV, CVC, and VC patterns.<ref name="w7">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=7}}</ref> Marshallese words always underlyingly begin and end with consonants.<ref name="b22" /> Initial, final, and long vowels may be explained as the results of underlying glides not present on the phonetic level.<ref name="b22" /> Initial vowels are sometimes realized with an onglide {{IPAblink|j}} or {{IPAblink|w}} but not consistently:<ref name="c22">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=22}}</ref> * {{IPA|/jætʲ/ → [<!--æ̯-->ætʲ ~ jætʲ]}} 'weave'<ref name="c23">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=23}}</ref> Only [[homorganic consonants|homorganic]] consonant sequences are allowed in Marshallese,<ref name="w4-5">{{harvp|Willson|2003|pp=4–5}}</ref> including geminate varieties of each consonant, except for glides.<ref name="c14" /> Non-homorganic clusters are separated by vowel [[epenthesis]] even across word boundaries.<ref name="w4-5" /> Some homorganic clusters are also disallowed:<ref name="w4-5" /> * [[obstruent consonant|Obstruent]]-obstruent, [[nasal consonant|nasal]]-nasal, [[liquid consonant|liquid]]-liquid, nasal-obstruent, and nasal-liquid clusters undergo assimilation of the secondary articulation except if the first consonant is a rounded coronal or a rounded dorsal. Then, the clusters undergo assimilation of the rounded articulation.<ref name="w5">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=5}}</ref> * †Obstruent-liquid and liquid-obstruent clusters besides {{IPA|/lʲtˠ/}} and {{IPA|/lˠtˠ/}} undergo epenthesis.<ref name="w5" /> * Liquid-nasal clusters undergo nasal assimilation.<ref name="w5" /> * Obstruent-nasal clusters undergo epenthesis (if coronal) or nasal assimilation (if non-coronal).<ref name="w5" /> * Clusters involving any glides undergo epenthesis, including otherwise homorganic clusters of two of the same glide. The following assimilations are created, with empty combinations representing epenthesis. {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+Bilabials |- | ↓→ ! {{IPA|/p/}} ! {{IPA|/m/}} |- ! {{IPA|/p/}} | {{IPA|/pː/}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/mː/}} |- ! {{IPA|/m/}} | {{IPA|/mp/}} |} {{col-break}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+Coronals |- | ↓→ ! {{IPA|/t/}} ! {{IPA|/n/}} ! {{IPA|/r/}} ! {{IPA|/l/}} |- ! {{IPA|/t/}} | {{IPA|/tː/}} ! colspan="3" | |- ! {{IPA|/n/}} | {{IPA|/nt/}} | rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/nː/}} | {{IPA|/nr/}} | {{IPA|/nl/}} |- ! {{IPA|/r/}} ! | {{IPA|/rː/}} | {{IPA|/rl/}} |- ! {{IPA|/l/}} | † | {{IPA|/lr/}} | {{IPA|/lː/}} |} {{col-break}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+Dorsals |- | ↓→ ! {{IPA|/k/}} ! {{IPA|/ŋ/}} |- ! {{IPA|/k/}} | {{IPA|/kː/}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ŋː/}} |- ! {{IPA|/ŋ/}} | {{IPA|/ŋk/}} |} {{col-break}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+Secondary |- | ↓→ ! {{IPA|/◌ʲ/}} ! {{IPA|/◌ˠ/}} ! {{IPA|/◌ʷ/}} |- ! {{IPA|/◌ʲ/}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/◌ʲ◌ʲ/}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/◌ˠ◌ˠ/}} | rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/◌ʷ◌ʷ/}} |- ! {{IPA|/◌ˠ/}} |- ! {{IPA|/◌ʷ/}} | colspan="3" | {{IPA|/◌ʷ◌ʷ/}} |} {{col-end}} The [[vowel height]] of an epenthetic vowel is not phonemic as the epenthetic vowel itself is not phonemic, but is still phonetically predictable given the two nearest other vowels and whether one or both of the cluster consonants are glides.<ref name="b22" /><ref name="w7" /> Bender (1968) does not specifically explain the vowel heights of epenthetic vowels between two non-glides, but of his various examples containing such vowels, none of the epenthetic vowels has a height lower than the highest of either of their nearest neighboring vowels, and the epenthetic vowel actually becomes {{IPA|/ɛ̯/}} if the two nearest vowels are both {{IPA|/æ/}}. ''Naan'' (2014) does not take the heights of epenthetic vowels between non-glides into consideration, phonetically transcribing all of them as a [[schwa]] {{IPAblink|ə}}.<ref name="naan" /> But when one of the consonants in a cluster is a glide, the height of the epenthetic vowel between them follows a different process, assuming the same height of whichever vowel is on the opposite side of that glide, forming a long vowel with it across the otherwise silent glide.<ref name="b22-23" /> Epenthetic vowels do not affect the rhythm of the spoken language, and can never be a stressed syllable.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}} Phonetic transcription may indicate epenthetic vowels between two non-glides as non-syllabic,<ref name="b8">{{harvp|Bender|1968|p=8}}</ref> using IPA notation similar to that of [[semi-vowel]]s. Certain Westernized Marshallese placenames spell out the epenthetic vowels: * [[Ebeye]], from earlier ''Eb'''e'''je'', from {{lang|mh|Epjā}}<ref name="MED" /> * [[Erikub|Er'''i'''kub]], from {{lang|mh|Ādkup}}<ref name="MED" /> * [[Kwajalein|Kwaj'''a'''lein]], from {{lang|mh|Kuwajleen}}<ref name="MED" /> * [[Majuro|Maj'''u'''ro]], from {{lang|mh|Mājro}}<ref name="MED" /> * [[Namorik|Nam'''o'''rik]], from {{lang|mh|Naṃdik}}<ref name="MED" /> * [[Omelek|Om'''e'''lek]], from {{lang|mh|Koṃle}} ("{{lang|mh|K<u>oṃle, K</u>oṃle}}")<ref name="MED" /> * [[Rongelap|Rong'''e'''lap]], from {{lang|mh|Roñḷap}}<ref name="MED" /> * [[Rongerik|Rong'''e'''rik]], from {{lang|mh|Roñdik}}<ref name="MED" /> * [[Ujelang|Uj'''e'''lang]], from {{lang|mh|Wūjlañ}}<ref name="MED" /> * [[Uliga|Ul'''i'''ga]], from {{lang|mh|Wūlka}}<ref name="MED" /> * [[Utirik|Ut'''i'''rik]], from {{lang|mh|Utrōk}}<ref name="MED" /> Epenthetic vowels in general can be omitted without affecting meaning, such as in song or in enunciated syllable breaks. This article uses non-syllabic notation in phonetic IPA transcription to indicate epenthetic vowels between non-glides. === Timing === The short vowel phonemes {{IPA|/æ ɛ e i/}} and the approximant phonemes {{IPA|/j ɰ w/}} all occupy a roughly equal duration of time.<ref name="c27">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=27}}</ref> Though they occupy time, the approximants are generally not articulated as glides, and Choi (1992) does not rule out a deeper level of representation.<ref name="c71">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=71}}</ref> In particular, {{IPA|/V/}} short vowels occupy one unit of time, and {{IPA|/VGV/}} long vowels (for which {{IPA|/G/}} is an approximant phoneme) are three times as long.<ref name="c65">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=65}}</ref> As a matter of [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], each {{IPA|/C/}} consonant and {{IPA|/V/}} vowel phonemic sequence carries one [[mora (linguistics)|mora]] in length, with the exception of {{IPA|/C/}} in {{IPA|/CV/}} sequences where the vowel carries one mora for both phonemes. All morae are thus measured in {{IPA|/CV/}} or shut {{IPA|/C/}} sequences:<ref name="w8">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=8}}</ref> * {{IPA|/CVC/}} is two morae: {{IPA|/CV-C/}}. It is also the shortest possible length of a Marshallese word. * {{IPA|/CVCVC/}} is three morae: {{IPA|/CV-CV-C/}}. Since approximants are also consonants, long vowel sequences of {{IPA|/CVGVC/}} are also three morae. * {{IPA|/CVCCVC/}} is four morae: {{IPA|/CV-C-CV-C/}}. * Prefixes like {{lang|mh|ri-}} are {{IPA|/CV-/}} sequences occupying only one mora but are attached to words rather than standing as words on their own. * Suffixes like {{lang|mh|-in}} are {{IPA|/-VC/}} sequences. The syllable itself occupies two morae but adds only one mora to the word because the vowel attaches itself to the last consonant phoneme in the word, changing {{IPA|/-C/}} into {{IPA|/-C‿V-C/}}. That makes Marshallese a mora-rhythmed language in a fashion similar to [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Gilbertese language|Gilbertese]], [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]], and [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. ===Historic sound changes=== {| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center |+ Marshallese reflexes of [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto Oceanic]] [[consonant]]s{{sfnp|Bender et al.|2003|pp=4, 5}} |- ! [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto-Oceanic]] | *mp || *mp,ŋp || *p || *m || *m,ŋm || *k || *ŋk || *ŋ || *y || *w || *t || || *s,nj || *ns,j || *j || *nt,nd || *d,R || *l || *n || *ɲ |- ! [[Micronesian languages|Proto-Micronesian]] | *p || *pʷ || *f || *m || *mʷ || *k || *x || *ŋ || *y || *w || *t || *T || *s || *S || *Z || *c || *r || *l || *n || *ɲ |- ! Marshallese | {{IPA|/pʲ/}} || {{IPA|/pˠ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}} || {{IPA|/mʲ/}} || {{IPA|/mˠ/}} || {{IPA|/k, kʷ/}} || {{IPA|∅}} || {{IPA|/ŋ, ŋʷ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}} || {{IPA|/w/}} || {{IPA|/tʲ/}} || {{IPA|/tʲ/}} || {{IPA|/tˠ/}} || {{IPA|/tˠ/}} || {{IPA|∅}} || {{IPA|/rʲ/}} || {{IPA|/rˠ, rʷ/}} || {{IPA|/lʲ, lˠ, lʷ/}} || {{IPA|/nʲ, nˠ, nʷ/}} || {{IPA|/nʲ/}} |- |} Marshallese consonants show splits conditioned by the surrounding Proto-Micronesian vowels. Proto-Micronesian *k *ŋ *r become rounded next to *o or next to *u except in bisyllables whose other vowel is unrounded. Default outcomes of *l and *n are palatalized; they become velarized or rounded before *a or sometimes *o if there is no high vowel in an adjacent syllable. Then, roundedness is determined by the same rule as above.
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