Editing Maxentius (section)

==Emperor==

=== Early reign ===
[[File:Follis con Massenzio e i Dioscuri, zecca di Ostia, 309-311, RIC VI 35.jpg|left|thumb|300x300px|Maxentius as [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]] on a ''[[follis]]''. Legend: IMPerator Caesar MAXENTIVS Pius Felix AVGustus / AETERNITAS AUGusti Nostri, the Dioscuri standing facing each other, their horses between.- M OST Q ([[Mint (facility)|Mint]] Ostia, officina P).]]
The joint rule of Maxentius and Maximian in Rome was tested further when Galerius marched to Italy in the summer of 307 with an even larger army. While negotiating with the invader, Maxentius could repeat what he did to Severus, by the promise of large sums of money and the authority of Maximian, many soldiers of Galerius defected to him. Galerius was forced to withdraw, plundering Italy on his way. Some time during the invasion, Severus was put to death by Maxentius, probably at [[Tre Taverne|Tres Tabernae]] near Rome (the exact circumstances of his death are not certain). After the failed campaign of Galerius, Maxentius' reign over Italy and Africa was firmly established. Beginning in 307, he tried to arrange friendly contacts with Constantine and in the summer of that year, Maximian travelled to [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], where Constantine married his daughter [[Fausta]] and was in turn appointed ''Augustus'' by the senior emperor. Constantine tried to avoid breaking with Galerius and did not openly support Maxentius during the invasion.

In 308, probably April, Maximian tried to depose his son in an assembly of soldiers in Rome; surprisingly to him, the present troops remained faithful to his son and he had to flee to Constantine. On 20 April, Maxentius proclaimed himself as the new [[Roman consul|consul]] of the year, alongside his son [[Valerius Romulus|Romulus]]. In the [[conference of Carnuntum]], in the autumn of that same year, Maxentius was once again denied recognition as legitimate emperor, and [[Licinius]] was appointed ''Augustus'' with the task of regaining the lost domains. Late in 308, [[Domitius Alexander]] was acclaimed emperor in [[Carthage]], and the African provinces seceded from Maxentian rule. This produced a dangerous situation for Maxentius, as Africa was critical to [[Grain supply to the city of Rome|Rome's food supply]].

[[Image:CircusCaracalla.png|thumb|right|250px|Circus of Maxentius in ancient times]]
Maxentius' eldest son [[Valerius Romulus]] died in 309, at the age of about fourteen, was [[Apotheosis|deified]] and buried in a mausoleum in the [[Villa of Maxentius]] at the [[Via Appia]]. Nearby, Maxentius also constructed the [[Circus of Maxentius]]. After the death of Maximian in 309 or 310, relations with Constantine rapidly deteriorated and Maxentius allied with [[Maximinus Daza|Maximinus]] to counter an alliance between Constantine and Licinius. He allegedly tried to secure the province of [[Raetia]] north of the Alps, thereby dividing the realms of Constantine and Licinius (reported by Zosimus); the plan was not carried out, as Constantine acted first.

In 310, Maxentius lost [[Istria]] to Licinius, who could not continue the campaign. By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics and he died soon after 30 April 311.<ref>Lactantius, 31–35; Eusebius, ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Historia Ecclesiastica]]'' 8.16. Elliott, ''Christianity of Constantine'', 43; Jones, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316.</ref><ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 39; Elliott, ''Christianity of Constantine'', 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96.</ref> Galerius' death destabilized what remained of the Tetrarchic system.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Elliott, ''Christianity of Constantine'', 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96.</ref> On hearing the news, Maximinus mobilized against Licinius and seized Asia Minor before meeting Licinius on the Bosphorus to arrange terms for peace.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 39–40; Elliott, ''Christianity of Constantine'', 44; Odahl, 96.</ref> In the meantime, Maxentius fortified northern Italy against potential invasions and sent a small army to Africa under the command of his [[praetorian prefect]] [[Gaius Caeionius Rufius Volusianus|Rufius Volusianus]] which defeated and executed the usurper [[Domitius Alexander]] in 310 or 311. Maxentius used the opportunity to seize the wealth of his supporters, and to bring large amounts of grain to Rome. He also strengthened his support among the Christians of Italy by allowing them to elect a new [[Bishop of Rome]], [[Pope Eusebius|Eusebius]].<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 38; Odahl, 96.</ref>
[[File:Statua di Massenzio come Pontefice Massimo, dalla sede del Collegio degli Augustali, Museo di Ostia.png|left|thumb|Possible portrait in the [[Museo Archeologico Ostiense|Museo Ostiense]], a recarved [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty|Antonine]] statue.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Prusac |first=Marina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E34tDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA147 |title=From Face to Face: Recarving of Roman Portraits and the Late-Antique Portrait Arts |date=2010-12-20 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-19232-4 |page=147 |language=en}}</ref>]]
Maxentius was far from secure, his early support dissolving into open protest; by 312, he was a man barely tolerated.<ref>Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68.</ref><ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 37.</ref> Without the revenues of the empire, Maxentius was forced to resume taxation in Italy to support his army and his building projects in Rome.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 36–37; Odahl, 99.</ref> The election of a bishop did not aid much, either, as [[Persecution of Diocletian|Diocletian's persecution]] had split the Italian church into competing factions over the issue of [[apostasy]] (see [[Donatism]]). The Christians of Italy could easily see that Constantine was more sympathetic to their plight than Maxentius.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 38–39.</ref> In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder".<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 40.</ref> Constantine, to prevent Maxentius from forming a hostile alliance with Licinius,<ref name="ReferenceA">Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41.</ref> forged his own alliance with the man over the winter of 311–12 by offering to him his sister [[Flavia Julia Constantia|Constantia]] in marriage. Maximinus Daza considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for military support.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Elliott, ''Christianity of Constantine'', 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96.</ref> Two alliances, Maximinus and Maxentius, Constantine and Licinius, lined up against one another. The emperors prepared for war.<ref>Odahl, 96.</ref>

===War against Constantine===
{{Campaignbox Constantine Wars}}
{{See also|Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (306–324 AD)}}

==== Verona ====
Maxentius expected an attack along his eastern flank from Licinius and stationed an army in [[Battle of Verona (312)|Verona]].<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Odahl, 99–100.</ref> Constantine had smaller forces than his opponent: with his forces withdrawn from Africa, with the praetorian and Imperial Horse Guard, and with the troops he had taken from Severus, Maxentius had an army equal to approximately 100,000 soldiers to use against his opponents in the north.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} Many of these he used to garrison fortified towns across the region, keeping most stationed with him in Verona. Against this, Constantine could only bring a force of between twenty-five and forty thousand men.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} The bulk of his troops simply could not be withdrawn from the Rhine frontiers without negative consequences.<ref>Odahl, 99–100.</ref> It was against the recommendations of his advisers and generals, against popular expectation, that Constantine anticipated Maxentius, and struck first.<ref name="ReferenceA" />

==== Turin ====
[[File:Battle of Constantine and Maxentius (detail-of-fresco-in-Vatican-Stanze) c1650 by Lazzaro Baldi after Giulio Romano at the University of Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|left|''Battle of [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]] and Maxentius'' (detail of fresco in the Vatican Museums) c. 1650 by [[Lazzaro Baldi]] after [[Giulio Romano (painter)|Giulio Romano]] at the University of Edinburgh]]

As early as weather permitted,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> late in the spring of 312,<ref name="Odahl, 101">Odahl, 101.</ref> Constantine crossed the Alps with a quarter of his army,{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} a force equivalent to something less than forty thousand men.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Having crossed the [[Cottian Alps]] at the [[Mont Cenis]] pass,<ref name="Odahl, 101"/> he first came to Segusium ([[Susa (TO)|Susa]], [[Italy]]), a heavily fortified town containing a military garrison, which shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his forces to set its gates on fire and scale its walls, and took the town quickly. Constantine forbade the plunder of the town and advanced into northern Italy.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Odahl, 101.</ref>

At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ([[Turin]], Italy), Constantine encountered a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry,<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Odahl, 101–02.</ref> labeled ''[[clibanarii]]'' or ''[[cataphract]]i'' in the ancient sources. In the ensuing [[Battle of Turin (312)|battle]] Constantine spread his forces into a line, allowing Maxentius' cavalry to ride into the middle of his forces. As his forces broadly encircled the enemy cavalry, Constantine's own cavalry charged at the sides of the Maxentian cataphracts, beating them with iron-tipped clubs. Many Maxentian cavalrymen were dismounted, while most others were variously incapacitated by the blows. Constantine then commanded his foot soldiers to advance against the surviving Maxentian infantry, cutting them down as they fled.<ref>''Panegyrici Latini'' 12(9).5–6; 4(10).21–24; Odahl, 102, 317–18.</ref> Victory, the panegyrist who speaks of the events declares, came easily.<ref>''Panegyrici Latini'' 12(9).8.1; 4(10).25.1; Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41, 305.</ref> Turin refused to give refuge to the retreating forces of Maxentius. It opened its gates to Constantine instead. Other cities of the north Italian plain, recognizing Constantine's quick and clement victories, sent him embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. He resided there until the middle of the summer of 312 before moving on.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41–42; Odahl, 103.</ref>

==== Milvian bridge ====
[[File:Sala di costantino, battaglia di Ponte Milvio 05.jpg|thumb|''[[The Battle of the Milvian Bridge (Giulio Romano)|The Battle of the Milvian Bridge]]'' by [[Giulio Romano (painter)|Giulio Romano]]]]

It was expected that Maxentius would try the same strategy as against Severus and Galerius earlier; that is, remaining in the well-defended city of Rome, and sit out a siege which would cost his enemy much more. For somewhat uncertain reasons, he abandoned this plan, however, and offered battle to Constantine near the [[Battle of Milvian Bridge|Milvian Bridge]] on 28 October 312. Ancient sources usually attribute this action to superstition or (if pro-Constantinian) divine providence. Maxentius of course had consulted soothsayers before battle, as was customary practice, and it can be assumed that they reported favourable [[omen]]s, especially as the day of battle would be his ''dies imperii'', the day of his accession to the throne (which was 28 October 306). What else may have motivated him is open to speculation.

The armies of Maxentius and Constantine met north of the city, some distance outside the walls, beyond the [[Tiber]] river on the [[Via Flaminia]]. Christian tradition, especially [[Lactantius]] and [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], claims that Constantine fought under the [[labarum]] in that battle, revealed to him in a dream. Of the battle itself, not much is known – Constantine's forces defeated Maxentius's troops, who retreated to the Tiber, and in the chaos of the fleeing army trying to cross the river, Maxentius fell into the water and drowned. His body was found the next day and paraded through the city, and later sent to Africa, as a sign that he had surely perished. Maxentius' entire family, including his two orphaned children, were also executed.