Editing Metacognition (section)

== Social metacognition ==
Although metacognition has thus far been discussed in relation to the [[self]], recent research in the field has suggested that this view is overly restrictive.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Jost|first1=J. T.|last2=Kruglanski|first2=A. W.|last3=Nelson|first3=T. O.|date=1998|title=Social metacognition: an expansionist review|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review|volume=2|issue=2|pages=137–154|doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr0202_6|issn=1088-8683|pmid=15647141|s2cid=25938204}}</ref> Instead, it is argued that metacognition research should also include beliefs about others' mental processes, the influence of culture on those beliefs, and on beliefs about ourselves. This "expansionist view" proposes that it is impossible to fully understand metacognition without considering the situational [[Norms (sociology)|norms]] and cultural expectations that influence those same conceptions. This combination of social psychology and metacognition is referred to as social metacognition.

Social metacognition can include ideas and perceptions that relate to [[social cognition]]. Additionally, social metacognition can include judging the cognition of others, such as judging the perceptions and emotional states of others.<ref name=":0" /> This is in part because the process of judging others is similar to judging the self.<ref name=":0" /> However, individuals have less information about the people they are judging; therefore, judging others tends to be more inaccurate; an effect called the [[fundamental attribution error]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tullis|first1=Jonathan G.|last2=Fraundorf|first2=Scott H.|date=August 2017|title=Predicting others' memory performance: The accuracy and bases of social metacognition|journal=Journal of Memory and Language|volume=95|pages=124–137|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2017.03.003|issn=0749-596X}}</ref> Having similar cognitions can buffer against this inaccuracy and can be helpful for teams or organizations, as well as interpersonal relationships.

=== Social metacognition and the self concept ===
An example of the interaction between social metacognition and [[self-concept]] can be found in examining implicit theories about the self. Implicit theories can cover a wide range of constructs about how the self operates, but two are especially relevant here; entity theory and incrementalist theory.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dweck|first1=Carol S.|last2=Chiu|first2=Chi-yue|last3=Hong|first3=Ying-yi|date=October 1995|title=Implicit Theories and Their Role in Judgments and Reactions: A Word From Two Perspectives|journal=Psychological Inquiry|volume=6|issue=4|pages=267–285|doi=10.1207/s15327965pli0604_1|issn=1047-840X|hdl=10722/44536|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Entity theory proposes that an individual's self-attributes and abilities are fixed and stable, while incrementalist theory proposes that these same constructs can be changed through effort and experience. Entity theorists are susceptible to learned helplessness because they may feel that circumstances are outside their control (i.e. there's nothing that could have been done to make things better), thus they may give up easily. Incremental theorists react differently when faced with failure: they desire to master challenges, and therefore adopt a mastery-oriented pattern. They immediately began to consider various ways that they could approach the task differently, and they increase their efforts. Cultural beliefs can act on this as well. For example, a person who has accepted a cultural belief that memory loss is an unavoidable consequence of old age may avoid cognitively demanding tasks as they age, thus accelerating cognitive decline.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Levy|first1=B.|last2=Langer|first2=E.|date=June 1994|title=Aging free from negative stereotypes: successful memory in China and among the American deaf|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=66|issue=6|pages=989–997|issn=0022-3514|pmid=8046582|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.66.6.989}}</ref> Similarly, a woman who is aware of the stereotype that purports that women are not good at mathematics may perform worse on tests of mathematical ability or avoid mathematics altogether.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Steele|first1=Jennifer R.|last2=Ambady|first2=Nalini|date=July 2006|title="Math is Hard!" The effect of gender priming on women's attitudes|journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology|volume=42|issue=4|pages=428–436|doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2005.06.003|issn=0022-1031}}</ref> These examples demonstrate that the metacognitive beliefs people hold about the self - which may be socially or culturally transmitted - can have important effects on persistence, performance, and motivation.

=== Attitudes as a function of social metacognition ===
The way that individuals think about attitude greatly affects the way that they behave. Metacognitions about attitudes influence how individuals act, and especially how they interact with others.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780203865989|title=Social Metacognition|last=Briñol|first=Pablo|editor1-first=Pablo|editor1-last=Briñol|editor2-first=Kenneth|editor2-last=Demarree|date=27 April 2012|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780203865989|pages=21–42|doi=10.4324/9780203865989}}</ref>

Some metacognitive characteristics of attitudes include importance, certainty, and perceived knowledge, and they influence behavior in different ways.<ref name=":2" /> Attitude importance is the strongest predictor of behavior and can predict information seeking behaviors in individuals. Attitude importance is also more likely to influence behavior than certainty of the attitude.<ref name=":2" /> When considering a social behavior like voting a person may hold high importance but low certainty. This means that they will likely vote, even if they are unsure whom to vote for. Meanwhile, a person who is very certain of who they want to vote for, may not actually vote if it is of low importance to them. This also applies to interpersonal relationships. A person might hold a lot of favorable knowledge about their family, but they may not maintain close relations with their family if it is of low importance.

Metacognitive characteristics of attitudes may be key to understanding how attitudes change. Research shows that the frequency of positive or negative thoughts is the biggest factor in attitude change.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780203865989|title=Social Metacognition|last=Briñol|first=Pablo|editor1-first=Pablo|editor1-last=Briñol|editor2-first=Kenneth|editor2-last=Demarree|date=27 April 2012|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780203865989|pages=43–62|doi=10.4324/9780203865989}}</ref> A person may believe that climate change is occurring but have negative thoughts toward it such as "If I accept the responsibilities of climate change, I must change my lifestyle". These individuals would not likely change their behavior compared to someone that thinks positively about the same issue such as "By using less electricity, I will be helping the planet".

Another way to increase the likelihood of behavior change is by influencing the source of the attitude. An individual's personal thoughts and ideas have a much greater impact on the attitude compared to ideas of others.<ref name=":3" /> Therefore, when people view lifestyle changes as coming from themselves, the effects are more powerful than if the changes were coming from a friend or family member. These thoughts can be re-framed in a way that emphasizes personal importance, such as "I want to stop smoking because it is important to me" rather than "quitting smoking is important to my family". More research needs to be conducted on culture differences and importance of group ideology, which may alter these results.

=== Social metacognition and stereotypes ===
People have secondary cognitions about the appropriateness, justifiability, and social judgability of their own stereotypic beliefs.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Social Metacognition|last=Briñol|first=Pablo|editor1-first=Pablo|editor1-last=Briñol|editor2-first=Kenneth|editor2-last=Demarree|date=27 April 2012|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780203865989|pages=243–262|doi=10.4324/9780203865989}}</ref> People know that it is typically unacceptable to make stereotypical judgments and make conscious efforts not to do so. Subtle social cues can influence these conscious efforts. For example, when given a false sense of confidence about their ability to judge others, people will return to relying on social stereotypes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yzerbyt|first1=Vincent Y.|last2=Schadron|first2=Georges|last3=Leyens|first3=Jacques-Philippe|last4=Rocher|first4=Stephan|date=1994|title=Social judgeability: The impact of meta-informational cues on the use of stereotypes.|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=66|issue=1|pages=48–55|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.48|issn=0022-3514}}</ref> Cultural backgrounds influence social metacognitive assumptions, including stereotypes. For example, cultures without the stereotype that memory declines with old age display no age differences in memory performance.<ref name=":1" />

When it comes to making judgments about other people, implicit theories about the stability versus malleability of human characteristics predict differences in social stereotyping as well. Holding an entity theory of traits increases the tendency for people to see similarity among group members and utilize stereotyped judgments. For example, compared to those holding incremental beliefs, people who hold entity beliefs of traits use more stereotypical trait judgments of ethnic and occupational groups as well as form more extreme trait judgments of new groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Plaks|first1=Jason E.|last2=Stroessner|first2=Steven J.|last3=Dweck|first3=Carol S.|last4=Sherman|first4=Jeffrey W.|date=2001|title=Person theories and attention allocation: Preferences for stereotypic versus counterstereotypic information.|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=80|issue=6|pages=876–893|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.876|pmid=11414372|issn=1939-1315|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/7sb722b1|type=Submitted manuscript}}</ref> When an individual's assumptions about a group combine with their implicit theories, more stereotypical judgments may be formed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yzerbyt|first1=Vincent|last2=Corneille|first2=Olivier|last3=Estrada|first3=Claudia|date=May 2001|title=The Interplay of Subjective Essentialism and Entitativity in the Formation of Stereotypes|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review|volume=5|issue=2|pages=141–155|doi=10.1207/s15327957pspr0502_5|issn=1088-8683|citeseerx=10.1.1.379.4076|s2cid=17740957}}</ref> Stereotypes that one believes others hold about them are called [[metastereotype]]s.