Editing Minh Mạng (section)

==Domestic program==
The beginning of Minh Mang rule over Vietnam was vastly unsettling. Vietnam was divided into autonomous domains governed independently by Viceroys under Gia Long. The [[1817–1824 cholera pandemic|first cholera pandemic]] reached Vietnam in summer 1820 removed 206,835 tax payers from royal tax registers,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nguyen |first1=Duy Thien |title=Migration and Change in the Way of Life: An Anthropological Introduction to the Vietnamese Community in Laos |date=2008 |publisher=Thế Giới Publishers|location=University of Michigan |pages=45}}</ref> while political scientist Samuel Popkin suggested that around one million people might have been perished due to the disease, out of Vietnam's total population of around eight million.<ref>{{cite book |last=Popkin |first=Samuel L. |title=The Rational Peasant:the Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam |year=1979|page=113}}</ref>

On the domestic front, Minh Mạng continued his father's national policies of reorganising the administrative structure of the government. These included the construction of highways, a postal service, public storehouses for food, monetary and agrarian reforms. He continued to redistribute land periodically and forbade all other sales of land to prevent wealthy citizens from reacquiring excessive amounts of land with their money. In 1840 it was decreed that rich landowners had to return a third of their holdings to the community. Calls for basic industrialisation and diversification of the economy into fields such as mining and forestry were ignored. He further centralised the administration, introduced the definition of three levels of performance in the triennial examinations for recruiting mandarins. In 1839, Minh Mạng introduced a program of salaries and pensions for princes and mandarins to replace the traditional assignment of fief estates. {{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}

Diseases, disasters and rebellions against oppression and misery were very frequent, undermining the king's strength. Vietnam was at its low point of coherence in history. About 200 rebellions were recorded during his twenty-year reign.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kleinen|first1=John|title=Facing the Future, Reviving the Past: A Study of Social Change in a Northern Vietnamese Village|date=1999 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|page=25}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Thân Văn Nhiếp (1804 - 1872).jpg|[[Thân Văn Nhiếp]], [[Sinology|Sinologist]] and Law prosecutor in the Ming Mạng's reign
File:Deputy Governor of Kamboja in his dress of ceremony by John Crawfurd book Published by H Colburn London 1828.jpg|[[Trương Tấn Bửu]] the Viceroy  of [[Hanoi]] in 1802 and vieroy of [[Gia Định]] in 1823 under [[Gia Long]] and Minh Mạng's reigns respectively

</gallery>

===Conquests and ethnic minority policy===
[[File:Maps of Vietnam during the reign of Emperor Minh Mạng (1820-1841).png|thumb|Map of the extent of the Vietnamese empire's power under Minh Mạng's rule]]
Despite ongoing intra-turmoil, Minh Mang exhibited his admiring to Confucian rule and classical Chinese culture, while imposing ethnic assimilation at home<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marrison|first=G. E.|author-mask=|date=1985|title=The Cham and their literature|journal=Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|volume=58|issue=2|pages=45–70|doi=|s2cid=}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Art of Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History of Upland Southeast Asia |last=Scott |first=James C. |author-link=James C. Scott |series=Yale Agrarian Studies |year=2009 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven & London|isbn=978-0-300-15228-9|page=117}}</ref> and pursuing territorial expansion and interference in neighboring Laos. Minh Mang put his support to [[Kingdom of Vientiane|Vientiane]]'s king [[Anouvong|Chao Anou]], his close ally, to wage [[Lao rebellion (1826–1828)|war]] against [[Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)|Siam]]. But the outcome did not go for their plan. Anou was defeated and then was detaining to the Siamese in late 1828 by [[Nôy|Chao Noi]], ruler of [[Muang Phuan]], also a tributary of Minh Mang.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ngaosyvathn |first=Mayoury |author2=Pheuiphanh Ngaosyvathn |year=1998 |title=Paths to Conflagration: Fifty Years of Diplomacy and Warfare in Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam, 1778–1828 |location=Ithaca, New York |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=0-87727-723-0|page=235}}</ref> Chao Noi was arrested by the Vietnamese for betraying, then being executed in Hue by Minh Mang. Muang Phuan was annexed into Vietnam in 1832 as Tran Ninh prefecture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dommen|first=Arthur J. |title=Laos: Keystone of Indochina|year=1985|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-42972-580-7}}</ref>

Minh Mạng enacted the final conquest of the [[Champa]] Kingdom after the [[History of the Cham–Vietnamese wars|centuries long Cham–Vietnamese wars]]. He aggressively repressed culture of the Cham and indigenous highland peoples. The [[Chams|Cham]] Muslim leader [[Katip Sumat]] was educated in [[Kelantan]] and came back to [[Champa]] to declare a [[Jihad]] against the Vietnamese after Emperor Minh Mạng's annexation of Champa.<ref name="Hubert2012">{{cite book|author=Jean-François Hubert|title=The Art of Champa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3oMqrqSp1W4C&pg=PA25|year=2012|publisher=Parkstone International|isbn=978-1-78042-964-9|pages=25–}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Raja Praong Ritual: A Memory of the Sea in Cham–Malay Relations |url=http://chamunesco.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=110:the-raja-praong-ritual-a-memory-of-the-sea-in-cham-malay-relations&catid=45:van-hoa&Itemid=120 |website=Cham Unesco |access-date=25 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206042152/http://chamunesco.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=110%3Athe-raja-praong-ritual-a-memory-of-the-sea-in-cham-malay-relations&catid=45%3Avan-hoa&Itemid=120 |archive-date=6 February 2015 }}</ref><ref>(Extracted from Truong Van Mon, "The Raja Praong Ritual: a Memory of the sea in Cham- Malay Relations", in ''Memory And Knowledge Of The Sea In South Asia'', Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences, University of Malaya, Monograph Series 3, pp, 97–111. International Seminar on Maritime Culture and Geopolitics & Workshop on Bajau Laut Music and Dance", Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences and the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Malaya, 23–24/2008)</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Dharma|first1=Po|title=The Uprisings of Katip Sumat and Ja Thak Wa (1833–1835)|url=http://www.chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/78-the-uprisings-of-katip-sumat-and-ja-thak-wa-1833-1835|website=Cham Today|access-date=25 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626122653/http://www.chamtoday.com/index.php/history-l-ch-s/78-the-uprisings-of-katip-sumat-and-ja-thak-wa-1833-1835|archive-date=26 June 2015}}</ref> The Vietnamese coercively fed lizard and pig meat to Cham Muslims and cow meat to Cham Hindus against their will to punish them and assimilate them to Vietnamese culture.<ref name="Wook2004 p141">{{cite book|author=Choi Byung Wook|title=Southern Vietnam Under the Reign of Minh Mạng (1820–1841): Central Policies and Local Response|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=foZAdRgB-nwC&pg=PA141|year=2004|publisher=SEAP Publications|isbn=978-0-87727-138-3|pages=141–}}</ref>

The Chinese or Hoa particularly concentrated in urbanized areas such as Saigon, Cho Lon, and Hanoi. They organized themselves into ''bang'' or  'congregations.' Two groups of Chinese that people tended to distinct, known as ''[[Minh Hương]]'' and ''Thanh nhân.'' The Minh hương were South Chinese refugees of the Ming dynasty that had migrated and settled down in South Vietnam earlier during the 17th century, who married with Cambodian women, had been substantially assimilated to local Vietnamese and Khmer populaces, and loyal to the Nguyen, compared to the Thanh nhân, Chinese immigrants of the Qing dynasty that recently arrived in Southern Vietnam, who dominated the [[grain trade]]. During the reign of Minh Mạng, a restriction against the Thanh nhân was issued in 1827, which prohibits the Thanh nhân access to the state bureaucracy, rice monopoly and foreign trade. Their alternate option was having themselves to be adjusted and integrated into Vietnamese society like the Minh Hương.<ref>{{citation|surname1=Choi|given1=Byung Wook| author-mask=|chapter=The Nguyen dynasty's policy toward Chinese on the Water Frontier in the first half of the Nineteenth Century|pages = 85–99|title=The Water Frontier|editor-given1=Cooke|editor-surname1=Nola|publisher=Singapore University Press|year=2004}}</ref>

Minh Mang sent troops to crushed a [[Cambodian rebellion (1820)|rebellion]] in Cambodia in 1820, then incorporated Cambodia into Vietnam in 1834 as the new [[Tây Thành province]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Chandler|first=David|author-link=David P. Chandler|year=2018|orig-year =1986|title=A History of Cambodia|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-429-97514-1|pages=146–149}}</ref> Since then, until his death, Minh Mang had been trying to force the Cambodians to adopt Vietnamese culture by the cultural assimilation progress of what historian [[David P. Chandler]] dubbed ''The Vietnamization of Cambodia.''<ref>{{cite book|last=Chandler|first=David|author-link=David P. Chandler|year=2018|orig-year =1986|title=A History of Cambodia|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-429-97514-1|pages=150–156}}</ref> Siamese accounts describe that Khmer nobles in [[Phnom Penh]] was forced to dress like Vietnamese, abide to Vietnamese laws, and were called "the new Yuon (Viet)". Cambodian revolts were put down brutally. [[Douglas Johnson (historian)|Douglas Johnson]] recalled year 1836 as the momentum marked the greatest territorial extent of the Vietnamese empire, also high point of its stability which most revolts in Minh Mang's realm had been suppressed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Johnson|first=Douglas|year=1971|title=The Making of the Modern World: The world of empires|publisher=Benn|page=270}}</ref> However, continuous uprisings in Cambodia, Tonkin, and wars with Siam put Minh Mang's expansion to an query, as all sides became exhausted.

===Rebellions===
{{main|Lê Văn Khôi revolt}}
Minh Mạng was regarded as being in touch with the concerns of the populace. Frequent local rebellions reminded him of their plight. Descendants of the old [[Lê dynasty]] fomented dissent in the north, appealing not only to the peasantry but to the Catholic minority. They attempted to enlist foreign help by promising to open up to missionaries. Local leaders in the south were upset with the loss of the relative political autonomy they enjoyed under Duyệt. With Duyệt's death in 1832, a strong defender of Christianity passed. Catholics had traditionally been inclined to side with rebel movements against the monarchy more than most Vietnamese and this erupted after Duyệt's death. Minh Mạng ordered Duyệt posthumously indicted and one hundred lashes were applied to his grave. This caused indignation against southerners who respected Duyệt. In July 1833, [[Lê Văn Khôi revolt|a revolt]] broke out under the leadership of his adopted son, Lê Văn Khôi. Historical opinion is divided with scholars contesting whether the grave desecration or the loss of southern autonomy after Duyệt's death was the main catalyst. Khôi's rebels brought Cochinchina under their control and proposed to replace Minh Mạng with a son of Prince Cảnh. Khôi took into hostage French missionary [[Joseph Marchand]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archives.mepasie.org/notices/notices-biographiques/marchand|title=Joseph Marchand: Biography (MEP)}}</ref> within the citadel, thinking that his presence would win over Catholic support. Khôi enlisted Siamese support, which was forthcoming and helped put Minh Mạng on the defense for a period.

Eventually, however, the Siamese were defeated and the south was recaptured by royalist forces, who besieged Saigon. Khôi died during the siege in December 1834 and Saigon fell nine months later in September 1835 and the rebel commanders put to death. In all the estimates of the captured rebels was put between 500 and 2000, who were executed. The missionaries were rounded up and ordered out of the country. The first French missionary executed was Gagelin in October 1833, the second was Marchand, who was put to death along with the other leaders of the Saigon citadel which surrendered in September 1835. From then until 1838 five more missionaries were put to death. The missionaries began seeking protection from their home countries and the use of force against Asians.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}

Minh Mạng pursued a policy of cultural assimilation of non-Viet ethnic groups which from 1841, through 1845, led to southern Vietnam experiencing a series of ethnic revolts.<ref>Choi Byung Wook ''Southern Vietnam Under the Reign of Minh Mạng (1820–1841)'' 2004  p. 151 "Insurrections – The court's radical assimilation policy led to an outbreak of resistance by non-Viet ethnic groups in southern Vietnam. Towards the end of Minh Mạng's reign in 1841, through 1845, southern Vietnam was swept by a series of ..."</ref>