Editing Mount Kinabalu (section)

== Biology ==
Mount Kinabalu, along with other upland areas of the [[Crocker Mountains]], is known worldwide for its [[biodiversity]] with plants of [[Himalaya]]n, [[Australasia]]n, and [[Indomalaya]]n origin. A recent botanical survey of the mountain estimated a staggering 5,000 to 6,000 plant species (excluding [[moss]]es and [[Marchantiophyta|liverwort]] but including [[fern]]s) thrive upon the mountain.<ref name=P&L /><ref>Parris, By. S., R. S. Beaman, and J. H. Beaman. 1992. ''The Plants of Mount Kinabalu: 1. Ferns and Fern Allies.'' Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. 165 pp + 5 pl.</ref><ref>Wood, J. J., J. H. Beaman, and R. S. Beaman. 1993. ''The Plants of Mount Kinabalu. 2. Orchids.'' Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. xii + 411 pp + 84 pl.</ref><ref>Beaman, J. H., and R. S. Beaman. 1998. ''The Plants of Mount Kinabalu. 3. Gymnosperms and Non-Orchid Monocotyledons.'' Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications (Borneo) Sdn. Bhd.; Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. xii + 220 pp + 25 pl.</ref><ref>Beaman, J. H., C. Anderson, and R. S. Beaman. 2001. ''The plants of Mount Kinabalu. 4: Dicotyledon families Acanthaceae to Lythraceae.'' xiv + 570 pp + 45 pl. Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications (Borneo) Sdn. Bhd.; Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens.</ref><ref>Beaman, J. H., and C. Anderson. 2004. ''The plants of Mount Kinabalu. 5: Dicotyledon families Magnoliaceae to Winteraceae.'' xiv + 609 pp + 40 pl. Kota Kinabalu: Natural History Publications (Borneo) Sdn. Bhd.; Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens.</ref> It is therefore one of the world's most important biological sites. A reason for its rich diversity and endemisms is that its extreme height provides refuge to cold-adapted species during interglacials.<ref name="doi.org">Miguel Camacho-Sanchez, Irene Quintanilla, Melissa T. R. Hawkins, Fred Y. Y. Tuh, Konstans Wells, Jesus E. Maldonado and Jennifer A. Leonard. 2018. "Interglacial refugia on tropical mountains: novel insights from the summit rat (Rattus baluensis), a Borneo mountain endemic". Diversity and Distributions, 24: 1252–1266. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.12761 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202114537/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ddi.12761 |date=2 December 2021 }}</ref>

In 2015, a major Malaysian-Dutch study showed that the unique flora, fauna, and fungi on the mountain summit are younger than the mountain itself, and have evolved from both local and distant montane ancestors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Merckx |first1=V. S. F. T. |last2=Hendriks |first2=K. P. |last3=Beentjes |first3=K. K. |last4=Mennes |first4=C. B. |last5=Becking |first5=L. E. |last6=Peijnenburg |first6=K. T. C. A. |last7=Afendy |first7=A. |last8=Arumugam |first8=N. |last9=de Boer |first9=H. |last10=Biun |first10=A. |last11=Buang |first11=M. M. |last12=Chen |first12=P.-P. |last13=Chung |first13=A. Y. C. |last14=Dow |first14=R. |last15=Feijen |first15=F. A. A. |last16=Feijen |first16=H. |last17=Feijen-van Soest |first17=C |last18=Geml |first18=J. |last19=Geurts |first19=R. |last20=Gravendeel |first20=B. |last21=Hovenkamp |first21=P. |last22=Imbun |first22=P. |last23=Ipor |first23=I. |last24=Janssens |first24=S. B. |last25=Jocqué |first25=M. |last26=Kappes |first26=H. |last27=Khoo |first27=E. |last28=Koomen |first28=P. |last29=Lens |first29=F. |last30=Majapun |first30=R. J. |last31=Morgado |first31=L. N. |last32=Neupane |first32=S. |last33=Nieser |first33=N. |last34=Pereira |first34=J. T. |last35=Rahman |first35=H. |last36=Sabran |first36=S. |last37=Sawang |first37=A. |last38=Schwallier |first38=R. M. |last39=Shim |first39=P.-S. |last40=Smit |first40=H. |last41=Sol |first41=N. |last42=Spait |first42=M. |last43=Stech |first43=M. |last44=Stokvis |first44=F. |last45=Sugau |first45=J. B. |last46=Suleiman |first46=M. |last47=Sumail |first47=S. |last48=Thomas |first48=D. C. |last49=van Tol |first49=J. |last50=Tuh |first50=F. Y. Y. |last51=Yahya |first51=B. E. |last52=Nais |first52=J. |last53=Repin |first53=R. |last54=Lakim |first54=M. |last55=Schilthuizen |first55=M. |year=2015 |title=Evolution of endemism on a young tropical mountain |doi=10.1038/nature14949 |journal=Nature |volume=524 |issue=7565 |pages=347–350 |pmid=26266979 |bibcode=2015Natur.524..347M |s2cid=4447746 |url=http://ir.unimas.my/10593/1/NO%2051%20Evolution%20of%20endemism%20on%20a%20young%20tropical%20mountain%20%28abstract%29.pdf |access-date=3 June 2019 |archive-date=23 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723150448/https://ir.unimas.my/10593/1/NO%2051%20Evolution%20of%20endemism%20on%20a%20young%20tropical%20mountain%20(abstract).pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Flora ===
The flora of the mountain varies with elevation and geology. [[Borneo lowland rain forests|Lowland forest]] extends up to about 1,500 metres (4,921&nbsp;ft) elevation, and consists of two main types, based on the dominant tree species – mixed [[dipterocarp]] forest and mixed [[Casuarinaceae|Casuarina]] forest. Lowland forests generally have a closed canopy 40 meters tall (131&nbsp;ft), along with an understory stratum of lower trees, and an emergent stratum of taller trees which extend above the canopy.<ref name = ultramafic>van der Ent, A., Erskine, P., Mulligan, D., Repin, R., & Karim, R. (2016). Vegetation on ultramafic edaphic “islands” in Kinabalu Park (Sabah, Malaysia) in relation to soil chemistry and elevation. ''Plant and Soil'', 403(1/2), 77–101. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43872634</ref>

[[Borneo montane rain forests|Montane rain forest]], also known as cloud forest, extends from approximately 1,400 metres elevation up to 2,900 metres (4,593 to 9,514&nbsp;ft). Montane forest typically has a closed canopy with single stratum, and the canopy height generally decreases with elevation. Typical trees include species of the plant families [[Fagaceae]] and [[Lauraceae]], with conifers increasingly abundant at higher elevations. The lower montane forests have a high diversity of orchid and fern species. [[Carnivorous plant]]s, including species of ''[[Nepenthes]]'', ''[[Drosera]]'', and ''[[Utricularia]]'', are most diverse between 2,200 and 2,550 meters elevation, in areas with high rainfall and a stunted, open tree canopy. The montane forests are interspersed with areas of graminoid scrub, generally associated with [[magnesium|hypermagnesic]] [[cambisol]] soils.<ref name = ultramafic/>

Sub-alpine scrub extends from {{cvt|2600|to|3200|m|ft|0}}. It includes short trees and shrubs such the conifer ''[[Dacrydium gibbsiae]]'', ''[[Leptospermum recurvum]]'', and species from the plant families [[Myrtaceae]] and [[Ericaceae]],<ref name = ultramafic/> along with dwarf shrubs, mosses, lichens, liverworts, and ferns. [[Orchid]]s are abundant and diverse in subalpine and alpine plant communities, except at the highest summits. Above 3,500 meters conditions are too extreme for trees, and above 3,700 meters persistent ground frost limits plants to the hardiest grasses, sedges and dwarf shrubs, including ''Leptospermum recurvatum'' and ''[[Rhododendron ericoides]]'', which grow in crevices and other sheltered areas on the rocky summits.<ref name = oneearth>Wikramanayake, Eric. [https://www.oneearth.org/ecoregions/kinabalu-montane-alpine-meadows/ Kinabalu Montane Alpine Meadows]. ''One Earth''. Accessed 5 March 2023.</ref>

[[File:Nepenthes rajah.png|thumb|left|upright|Large lower pitcher of ''[[Nepenthes rajah]]'']]
The plants of Mount Kinabalu have high levels of [[biodiversity]] and [[endemism]] (i.e. species which are found only within Kinabalu Park and are not found anywhere else in the world). Orchids are the best-known example, with 866 species in 134 genera, including species of ''[[Bulbophyllum]], [[Dendrobium]], [[Coelogyne]], [[Liparis (plant)|Liparis]]'', and ''[[Calanthe]]'',<ref name = oneearth/> and some of the highly valued ''[[Paphiopedilum]]'' [[Cypripedioideae|slipper orchids]]. There are also over 600 species of [[fern]]s (more than the whole of Africa's 500 species) of which 50 are found nowhere else. Mount Kinabalu has the richest collection in the world of ''Nepenthes'' pitcher plants (five of the thirteen are found nowhere else on earth), some of which reach spectacular proportions (the largest-pitchered in the world being the endemic ''[[Nepenthes rajah]]'').<ref name=P&L /><ref name=Kurata>Kurata, S. 1976. ''[[Nepenthes of Mount Kinabalu]]''. Sabah National Parks Publications No. 2, Sabah National Parks Trustees, Kota Kinabalu.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adam |first1=J.H. |last2=Wilcock |first2=C.C. |year=1998 |title=Pitcher plants of Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah |journal=The Sarawak Museum Journal |volume=50 |issue=71 |pages=145–171}}</ref> The [[parasitic]] ''[[Rafflesia]]'' plant, which has the largest single flower in the world, is also found in Kinabalu (particularly ''[[Rafflesia keithii]]'' whose flower grows to {{cvt|94|cm|in}} in diameter),<ref name=P&L /> though blooms of the flower are rare and difficult to find. Meanwhile, another ''Rafflesia'' species, ''[[Rafflesia tengku-adlinii]]'', can be found on the neighbouring [[Mount Trus Madi]] and the nearby [[Maliau Basin]].

Mount Kinabalu's above-average biodiversity in plant life is due to a combination of several unique factors: its setting in one of the richest plant regions of the world (the tropical biogeographical region known as western [[Malesia]] which comprises the island of [[Sumatra]], the [[Malay Peninsula]], and the island of [[Borneo]]), the fact that the mountain covers a wide climatic range from near sea level to freezing ground conditions near the summit, the jagged terrain and diversity of rocks and soils, the high levels of rainfall (averaging about {{cvt|2700|mm|in}} a year at park HQ), and the climatic instability caused by periods of [[glaciation]] and catastrophic droughts which result in [[evolution]] and [[speciation]]. This diversity is greatest in the lowland regions (consisting of lowland dipterocarp forests, so called because the tree [[family (biology)|family]] [[Dipterocarpaceae]] are dominant). However, most of Kinabalu's [[endemism|endemic]] species are found in the mountain forests, particularly on [[ultramafic]] soils.<ref name=P&L /><ref name = Beaman/>

The ultramafic rocks which make up parts of the mountain create soils rich in certain metallic elements (nickel, cobalt, chromium, and manganese), high [[cation]] imbalances (high Mg:Ca molar quotients), and deficiencies of some nutrients including potassium and phosphorus. These soil conditions affect the plant life, and plant communities on ultramafic soils show lower stature and lower biomass, higher levels of endemism, and a distinct species composition compared to plant communities at similar elevations elsewhere on the mountain.<ref name = ultramafic/>

=== Fauna ===
[[File:Borneo Mount Kinabalu Moutain Squirrel Rat.jpg|thumb|right|A mountain squirrel, ''[[Sundasciurus tenuis]]'', from Mount Kinabalu]]
The variety of plant life is also habitat for a great variety of birds and mammals.<ref>Camacho-Sanchez M, Hawkins MTR, Tuh Yit Yu F, Maldonado JE, Leonard JA. 2019. Endemism and diversity of small mammals along two neighboring Bornean mountains. PeerJ 7:e7858 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7858 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202114421/https://peerj.com/articles/7858/ |date=2 December 2021 }}</ref> There are some 326 species of birds in Kinabalu Park, including the spectacular [[rhinoceros hornbill]], [[mountain serpent-eagle]], [[Dulit frogmouth]], [[eyebrowed jungle flycatcher]], and [[bare-headed laughingthrush]]. Twenty-four birds are mainly found on the mountain. The mountain is home to some 100 mammalian species mostly living high in the trees, including one of the great apes, the [[Bornean orangutan]] (though sightings of these are uncommon; estimates of its numbers in the park range from 25 to 120).<ref name=P&L /> Other mammals include three kinds of deer, the [[Malayan weasel]] (''Mustela nudipes''), [[Oriental small-clawed otter]] (''Aonyx cinerea''), and [[leopard cat]] (''Prionailurus bengalensis''). Endemic mammals include the [[black shrew]] (''Suncus ater''). However, others of its endemics, such as the [[Bornean ferret-badger]] (''Melogale everetti'') and ''[[Rattus baluensis]]'', have also recently been recorded in the nearby [[Mount Tambuyukon]].<ref name="doi.org"/>

Endemic annelids number less than a dozen known species but include the [[Kinabalu giant red leech]] that preys on various earthworms, including the [[Kinabalu giant earthworm]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Blakemore, R.J. |author2=C. Csuzdi |author3=M.T. Ito |author4=N. Kaneko |author5=T. Kawaguchi |author6=M. Schilthuizen |year=2007 |url=http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2007f/z01613p044f.pdf |title=Taxonomic status and ecology of Oriental ''Pheretima darnleiensis'' (Fletcher, 1886) and other earthworms (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae) from Mt Kinabalu, Borneo |journal=Zootaxa |volume=1613 |issue=1 |pages=23–44 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.1613.1.2 |access-date=31 December 2007 |archive-date=10 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410002726/http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2007f/z01613p044f.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In the summit zone, at least 26 endemic species of [[land snail]] exist.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liew |first1=T.S. |last2=Schilthuizen |first2=M. |year=2010 |title=The determinants of land snail diversity along a tropical altitudinal gradient: insularity, geometry, and niches |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=1071–1078 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02243.x|s2cid=83558264 }}</ref> In 2012, a major scientific expedition, jointly organised by the Malaysian [[Sabah Parks]] and the Dutch [[Naturalis Biodiversity Center]], performed DNA analysis of several dozen endemic flora, fauna, and fungi, to understand the evolutionary origin of the unique [[biodiversity]] of Kinabalu.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.naturalis.nl/en/about-us/press/pressreleases/expedition-investigates-origin-unique-species-borneo/ |title=Expedition investigates origin of unique species on Borneo |work=Press release |publisher=Naturalis Biodiversity Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723132432/http://www.naturalis.nl/en/about-us/press/pressreleases/expedition-investigates-origin-unique-species-borneo/ |archive-date=23 July 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Threats and preservation ===
{{see also|Deforestation in Borneo}}
The steep mountainsides with poor soil are not suitable for farming or for the timber industry so the habitats and animal life of Kinabalu remain largely intact, with about a third of the original habitat now degraded. Kinabalu Park was established in 1964 and the nearby mountains were protected as the [[Crocker Range National Park]] in 1984. However even national park status does not guarantee full protection, as logging permits were granted on Trus Madi in 1984.<ref>{{WWF ecoregion|id=im1001|name=Kinabalu montane alpine meadows}}</ref><ref name="doi.org"/>