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Multiculturalism
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===Criticism{{anchor|Opposition}}=== {{Main|Criticism of multiculturalism}} Critics of multiculturalism often debate whether the multicultural ideal of benignly co-existing cultures that interrelate and influence one another, and yet remain distinct, is sustainable, paradoxical, or even desirable.<ref name="Nagle2009">{{cite book|last = Nagle|first = John|title=Multiculturalism's double bind: creating inclusivity, cosmopolitanism and difference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqMCc37dW1kC&pg=PA129|date=23 September 2009|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-7607-2|page=129}}</ref><ref name="Rajaee2000">{{cite book|last = Rajaee |first = Farhang |title=Globalization on trial: the human condition and the information civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyAt3T1V4EcC&pg=PT97|date=May 2000|publisher=IDRC |isbn= 9780889369092 |page=97}}</ref><ref name="SandercockAttili2009">{{cite book|last1 = Sandercock |first1 =Leonie |last2 = Attili |first2 = Giovanni |last3 = Cavers |first3 = Val |last4 = Carr |first4 = Paula |title=Where strangers become neighbours: integrating immigrants in Vancouver, Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmlGzr4s0uMC&pg=PA16|date=1 May 2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-9034-9|page=16}}</ref> It is argued that [[nation states]], who would previously have been synonymous with a distinctive cultural identity of their own, lose out to enforced multiculturalism and that this ultimately erodes the host nations' distinct culture.<ref name="Report attacks multiculturalism">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4295318.stm |title=Report attacks multiculturalism |work = [[BBC News]] |date=30 September 2005 |access-date=10 December 2010 }}</ref> [[Sarah Song (professor)|Sarah Song]] views cultures as historically shaped entities by its members, and that they lack boundaries due to globalization, thereby making them stronger than others might assume.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Justice, Gender, and the Politics of Multiculturalism|last=Song|first=Sarah|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-511-49035-4}}</ref> She goes on to argue against the notion of special rights as she feels cultures are mutually constructive, and are shaped by the dominant culture. Brian Barry advocates a difference-blind approach to culture in the political realm and he rejects group-based rights as antithetical to the universalist liberal project, which he views as based on the individual.<ref>[[Brian Barry]], Culture and Equality ([[Polity Press]], 2001), p. 148.</ref> [[Susan Moller Okin]], a [[feminist]] professor of [[political philosophy]], argued in 1999, in "Is multiculturalism bad for women?", that the principle that all cultures are equal means that the equal rights of women in particular are sometimes severely violated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bostonreview.net/forum/susan-moller-okin-multiculturalism-bad-women|title=Is Multiculturalism Bad For Women?|date=1 October 1997|website=Boston Review}}</ref> Harvard professor of political science [[Robert D. Putnam]] conducted a nearly decade-long study on how multiculturalism affects social trust.<ref name="Putnam, Robert D. 2007">{{Cite journal |last= Putnam |first = Robert D. |author-link = Robert D. Putnam |title = ''E Pluribus Unum'': Diversity and community in the twenty-first century |journal = [[Scandinavian Political Studies]] |volume = 30 |issue = 2 |pages = 137–74 |doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.x |date = June 2007 |s2cid = 14234366 }}</ref> He surveyed 26,200 people in 40 American communities, finding that when the data were adjusted for class, income and other factors, the more racially diverse a community is, the greater the loss of trust. People in diverse communities "don't trust the local mayor, they don't trust the local paper, they don't trust other people and they don't trust institutions," writes Putnam.<ref>{{cite news |last = Sailer |first = Steve |author-link = Steve Sailer |title = Fragmented future |url = http://www.amconmag.com/article/2007/jan/15/00007/ |work = [[The American Conservative]] |publisher = Jon Basil Utley |date = 15 January 2007 |access-date = 19 November 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604174328/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2007/jan/15/00007/ |archive-date = 4 June 2011 |url-status = dead }}</ref> In the presence of such ethnic diversity, Putnam maintains that, "[W]e hunker down. We act like turtles. The effect of diversity is worse than had been imagined. And it's not just that we don't trust people who are not like us. In diverse communities, we don't trust people who do not look like us".<ref name="Putnam, Robert D. 2007" /> Putnam has also stated, however, that "this allergy to diversity tends to diminish and to go away... I think in the long run we'll all be better."<ref>Martin, Michel, "[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12802663 Political Scientist: Does Diversity Really Work?]" Tell Me More, NPR. Written 15 August 2007, accessed 15 September 2017.</ref> Putnam denied allegations he was arguing against diversity in society and contended that his paper had been "twisted" to make a case against race-conscious admissions to universities. He asserted that his "extensive research and experience confirm the substantial benefits of diversity, including racial and ethnic diversity, to our society."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/percolator/robert-putnam-says-his-research-was-twisted/30357|title=Harvard Sociologist Says His Research Was 'Twisted'|last=Berlett|first=Tom|date=15 August 2012|work=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]|access-date=28 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101091923/https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/percolator/robert-putnam-says-his-research-was-twisted/30357|archive-date=1 January 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Ethnologist]] Frank Salter writes: <blockquote> Relatively homogeneous societies invest more in public goods, indicating a higher level of public altruism. For example, the degree of ethnic homogeneity correlates with the government's share of gross domestic product as well as the average wealth of citizens. Case studies of the United States, Africa and South-East Asia find that multi-ethnic societies are less charitable and less able to cooperate to develop public infrastructure. Moscow beggars receive more gifts from fellow ethnics than from other ethnies {{sic}}. A recent multi-city study of municipal spending on public goods in the United States found that ethnically or racially diverse cities spend a smaller portion of their budgets and less per capita on public services than do the more homogeneous cities.<ref>Salter, Frank, ''On Genetic Interests'', p. 146.</ref> </blockquote> [[Dick Lamm]], former three-term Democratic governor of the US state of [[Colorado]], argued that "diverse peoples worldwide are mostly engaged in hating each other—that is, when they are not killing each other. A diverse, peaceful, or stable society is against most historical precedent."<ref>{{cite web |last = Lamm |first = Richard D. |title = I have a plan to destroy America |url = http://www.snopes.com/politics/soapbox/lamm.asp |website = Snopes.com |date = 2005 |access-date = 12 January 2011 }}</ref> The American classicist [[Victor Davis Hanson]] used the perceived differences in "rationality" between Moctezuma and Cortés to argue that Western culture was superior to every culture in the entire world, which thus led him to reject multiculturalism as a false doctrine that placed all cultures on an equal footing.<ref name="Hanson, Victor Davis 2001. p. 205">Hanson, Victor Davis ''Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power'', New York: Random House, 2001. p. 205</ref> In New Zealand ([[Aotearoa]]), which is officially bi-cultural, multiculturalism has been seen as a threat to the [[Māori people|Māori]] as an attempt by the New Zealand Government to undermine Māori demands for [[self-determination]] and encourage assimilation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Jay T. |title=Indigeneity's Challenges to the White Settler-State: Creating a Thirdspace for Dynamic Citizenship |journal=Alternatives: Global, Local, Political |date=January 2008 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=29–52 |doi=10.1177/030437540803300103 |s2cid=145192448 }}</ref> [[Far-right politics|Far-right sympathisers]] have been shown to increasingly take part in a multitude of online discursive efforts directed against global brands' multicultural advertisements.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ulver|first1=Sofia|last2=Laurell|first2=Christofer|date=October 2020|title=Political Ideology in Consumer Resistance: Analyzing Far-Right Opposition to Multicultural Marketing|journal=[[Journal of Public Policy & Marketing]]|volume=39|issue=4|pages=477–493|doi=10.1177/0743915620947083|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{rp|p=477}} [[Racial]] and [[ethnic]] labels can have a significant impact: non-minorities primed to think of themselves as [[White Americans|White]] (versus [[European American]]) were subsequently less in favor of multiculturalism and were more racially prejudiced.<ref name=MorrisonChung2011>{{cite journal|last1=Morrison|first1=Kimberly Rios|last2=Chung|first2=Adrienne H.|date=January 2011|title="White" or "European American"? Self-identifying labels influence majority group members' interethnic attitudes|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022103110001721|journal=[[Journal of Experimental Social Psychology]]|volume=47|issue=1|pages=165–170|doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2010.07.019|access-date=29 December 2024|url-access=subscription}}</ref> This was due to decreases in [[Identity (social science)|identification]] with [[ethnic minorities]].<ref name=MorrisonChung2011/>
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