Editing Nazca lines (section)

==Speculation regarding purpose==
[[File:Nazca Lines SPOT 1311.jpg|right|thumb|Nazca Lines seen from [[SPOT Satellite]]]]
[[Anthropologist]]s, [[ethnologist]]s, and [[archaeologist]]s have studied the ancient Nazca culture to try to determine the purpose of the lines and figures.

[[Paul Kosok]] and [[Maria Reiche]] advanced a purpose related to [[astronomy]] and [[cosmology]], as has been common in monuments of other ancient cultures: the lines were intended to act as a kind of [[observatory]], to point to the places on the distant horizon where the sun and other celestial bodies rose or set at the [[solstice]]s. Many prehistoric [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] cultures in the Americas and elsewhere constructed earthworks that combined such astronomical sighting with their religious cosmology, as did the late [[Mississippian culture]] at [[Cahokia]] and other sites in present-day United States. Another example is [[Stonehenge]] in England. [[Newgrange]] in Ireland has tombs that are oriented to admit light at the winter solstice.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Sliver of sunlight breaks through to Newgrange burial chamber on overcast winter solstice morning |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/2023/12/21/sliver-of-sunlight-breaks-through-to-newgrange-burial-chamber-on-overcast-winter-solstice-morning/ |access-date=2024-11-08 |newspaper=The Irish Times |language=en}}</ref>

[[Gerald Hawkins]] and [[Anthony Aveni]], experts in [[archaeoastronomy]], concluded in 1990 that the evidence was insufficient to support such an astronomical explanation.<ref name="isbn0-8160-2581-9">{{cite book |author=Cameron, Ian |title=Kingdom of the Sun God: A History of the Andes and Their People |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |date=1990 |page=[https://archive.org/details/kingdomofsungodh00came/page/46 46] |isbn=0-8160-2581-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/kingdomofsungodh00came/page/46}}</ref>

Maria Reiche asserted that some or all of the figures represented [[constellation]]s. By 1998, Phyllis B. Pitluga, a protégé of Reiche and senior astronomer at the [[Adler Planetarium]] in Chicago, had concluded that the animal figures were "representations of heavenly shapes." According to ''[[The New York Times]]'', Pitluga "contends they are not shapes of constellations, but of what might be called ''counter constellations'', the irregularly-shaped dark patches within the twinkling expanse of the [[Milky Way]]."<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/15/world/maria-reiche-95-keeper-of-an-ancient-peruvian-puzzle-dies.html?pagewanted=all Robert McG. Thomas Jr, "Maria Reiche, 95, Keeper of an Ancient Peruvian Puzzle, Dies"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304172331/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/06/15/world/maria-reiche-95-keeper-of-an-ancient-peruvian-puzzle-dies.html?pagewanted=all |date=4 March 2018 }}, ''The New York Times,'' 15 June 1998</ref> Anthony Aveni criticized her work for failing to account for all the details.{{Citation needed|date=November 2019}}

Alberto Rossel Castro (1977) proposed a multi-functional interpretation of the geoglyphs. He classified them into three groups: the first appeared to be tracks connected to irrigation and field division, the second are lines that are [[Cartesian coordinate system|axes]] connected with mounds and cairns, and the third was linked to astronomical interpretations.<ref>Rossel Castro, Albert (1977) ''Arqueología Sur del Perú'', Lima: Editorial Universo</ref>

In 1985, archaeologist [[Johan Reinhard]] published archaeological, [[ethnographic]], and historical data demonstrating that worship of mountains and other water sources predominated in Nazca religion and economy from ancient to recent times. He theorized that the lines and figures were part of religious practices involving the worship of deities associated with the availability of water, which directly related to the success and productivity of crops. He interpreted the lines as sacred paths leading to places where these deities could be worshiped. The figures were symbols representing animals and objects meant to invoke the aid of the deities in supplying water. The precise meanings of many of the individual geoglyphs remain unknown.{{fact|date=July 2021}}

[[Henri Stierlin]], a Swiss [[art historian]] specializing in Egypt and the Middle East, published a book in 1983 linking the Nazca Lines to the production of ancient textiles that archeologists have found wrapping [[mummies]] of the [[Paracas culture]].<ref>Stierlin (1983) {{page needed|date=January 2020}}</ref> He contended that the people may have used the lines and [[Trapezoid|trapezes]] as giant, primitive [[loom]]s to fabricate the extremely long strings and wide pieces of textiles typical of the area. According to his theory, the figurative patterns (smaller and less common) were meant only for ritualistic purposes. This theory is not widely accepted, although scholars have noted similarities in patterns between the textiles and the Nazca Lines. They interpret these similarities as arising from the common culture.{{fact|date=July 2021}}

The first systematic field study of the geoglyphs was made by Markus Reindel and Johny Cuadrado Isla. Since 1996, they have documented and excavated more than 650 sites.  They compared the iconography of the lines to  ceramics of the cultures. As archeologists, they believe that the figurative motifs of geoglyphs can be dated to having been made between 600 and 200 BC.<ref>Reindel and Wagner, 2009 {{page needed|date=January 2020}}</ref>

Based on the results of geophysical investigations and the observation of geological faults, David Johnson argued that some geoglyphs followed the paths of aquifers from which aqueducts (or ''[[puquios]]'') collected water.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-0597-6_12 |chapter=The Correlation Between Geoglyphs and Subterranean Water Resources in the Río Grande de Nazca Drainage |title=Andean Archaeology II |year=2002 |last1=Johnson |first1=David W. |last2=Proulx |first2=Donald A. |last3=Mabee |first3=Stephen B. |pages=307–332 |isbn=978-1-4613-5150-4}}</ref>

[[Nicola Masini]] and [[Giuseppe Orefici]] have conducted research in Pampa de Atarco, about 10&nbsp;km (6&nbsp;mi) south of Pampa de Nasca, which they believe reveals a spatial, functional and religious relationship between these geoglyphs and the temples of [[Cahuachi]].<ref name="Masini et al 2016">{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-47052-8_12 |chapter=Cahuachi and Pampa de Atarco: Towards Greater Comprehension of Nasca Geoglyphs |title=The Ancient Nasca World |year=2016 |last1=Masini |first1=Nicola |last2=Orefici |first2=Giuseppe |last3=Danese |first3=Maria |last4=Pecci |first4=Antonio |last5=Scavone |first5=Manuela |last6=Lasaponara |first6=Rosa |pages=239–278 |isbn=978-3-319-47050-4}}</ref>  In particular, using  [[remote sensing]] techniques (from satellite to drone based remote sensing), they investigated  and found "five groups of geoglyphs, each of them characterized by a specific motif and shape, and associated with a distinct function."<ref name="Masini et al 2016"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Masini |first1=Nicola |last2=Lasaponara |first2=Rosa |title=Satellite and close range analysis for the surveillance and knowledge improvement of the Nasca geoglyphs |journal=Remote Sensing of Environment |date=January 2020 |volume=236 |pages=111447 |doi=10.1016/j.rse.2019.111447 |bibcode=2020RSEnv.23611447M |doi-access=free}}</ref> They identified a ceremonial one, characterized by meandering motifs. Another is related to calendrical purpose, as proved by the presence of radial centers aligned along the directions of winter solstice and equinox sunset.  As have earlier scholars, the two Italians believe that the geoglyphs were the venues of events linked to the agriculture calendar. These also served to strengthen social cohesion among various groups of pilgrims, sharing common ancestors and religious beliefs.<ref name="Masini et al 2016"/>

===Alternative speculations===
[[file:NEO nazca lines big.jpg|right|thumb|Satellite picture of an area containing lines: north is to the right (coordinates: {{coord|14.7|S|75.|W}})]]<!-- note image is rotated approx. 90° cw, with north at right -->
Other theories were that the geometric lines could indicate water flow or irrigation schemes, or be a part of rituals to "summon" water. The spiders, birds, and plants may be fertility symbols. It also has been theorized that the lines could act as an [[astronomical calendar]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Cynthia Stokes |title=Big History |publisher=The New Press |location=New York |date=2007 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bighistoryfrombi00brow/page/167 167] |isbn=978-1-59558-196-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/bighistoryfrombi00brow/page/167}}</ref>

Phyllis Pitluga, senior astronomer at the [[Adler Planetarium]] and a protégé of Reiche, performed computer-aided studies of star alignments. She asserted the giant spider figure is an [[Anamorphosis|anamorphic]] diagram of the [[Orion (constellation)|constellation Orion]]. She further suggested that three of the straight lines leading to the figure were used to track the changing [[declinations]] of the three stars of [[Orion's Belt]]. In a critique of her analysis, Dr. Anthony F. Aveni noted she did not account for the other 12 lines of the figure.{{fact|date=July 2021}}

He commented generally on her conclusions, saying:
<blockquote>I really had trouble finding good evidence to back up what she contended. Pitluga never laid out the criteria for selecting the lines she chose to measure, nor did she pay much attention to the archaeological data Clarkson and Silverman had unearthed. Her case did little justice to other information about the coastal cultures, save applying, with subtle contortions, Urton's representations of constellations from the highlands. As historian [[Jacquetta Hawkes]] might ask: was she getting the pampa she desired?<ref>Aveni, Anthony F. (2006). ''Between the Lines: The Mystery of the Giant Ground Drawings of Ancient Nasca, Peru ''. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press.  {{ISBN|0-292-70496-8}} p. 205 [https://archive.org/details/betweenlinesmyst00aven/page/204 <!-- quote=pitluga nazca lines. -->]</ref></blockquote>

=== Pseudoscientific extraterrestrial origin ===
Swiss [[Pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] writer [[Erich von Däniken]] was fascinated by Nazca and was also a strong believer in extraterrestrial visitations. Von Däniken published a best-selling book titled ''[[Chariots of the Gods?]]'' in 1968. In this book he describes his theory that the lines were used as landing sites for UFOs.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is the mystery behind the ancient Nazca lines? |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/what-is-the-mystery-behind-the-ancient-nazca-lines-50318 |website=TRTWORLD |access-date=29 April 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429191917/https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/what-is-the-mystery-behind-the-ancient-nazca-lines-50318 |url-status=live }}</ref> Däniken claimed that the Nazca lines site reflected visits by astronauts from other worlds, who became the creators of ancient civilizations. According to Von Däniken, Sanskrit literature describes a story in which an aircraft landed on Earth, and the local people watched in amazement as "human-like beings with golden, shimmering skins" walked, mined for metals and then flew away in their ship.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Fagan |first1=Brian |date=29 November 1998 |title=Maybe Not |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-nov-29-bk-48636-story.html |access-date=29 April 2022 |website=Los Angeles Times |archive-date=29 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429191917/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1998-nov-29-bk-48636-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> These [[ancient astronauts]] supposedly soon returned where they built landing tracks and then eventually left forever. The amazed Native Americans then considered Nazca a place of pilgrimage and generations of their people built more figures and runways as an invitation for gods to return, but they never did. 

At the time of Erich von Däniken's publishing of ''Chariots of the Gods?'', scientists and archeologists such as [[Maria Reiche]] declared that his ideas were absurd and should be discarded. These scientists and archeologists also were able to prove that these lines could have been made using simple tools that would have been available to the people at the time they were created. Erich von Däniken's books ''Arrival of the Gods'' and ''Chariots of the Gods?'' were considered to not have any intellectual credibility or literary merit. Before Von Däniken's work, other authors had presented ideas of extraterrestrial contact with ancient humans, but he failed to credit these authors, even when making the same claims and also using identical or similar evidence. Nevertheless, Von Däniken's books drew in thousands of visitors and believers to the site.<ref>{{cite web |date=25 August 2020 |title=The Nazca lines-Messages to the Gods? |url=https://blog.globusjourneys.com/2020/08/25/the-nazca-lines-messages-to-the-gods/ |access-date=29 April 2022 |website=Revealing Travel |publisher=Globus |archive-date=29 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429191920/https://blog.globusjourneys.com/2020/08/25/the-nazca-lines-messages-to-the-gods/ |url-status=live }}</ref>