Editing Nomad (section)

==Pastoralism==
{{Main|Pastoralism|Transhumance|nomadic pastoralism}}
{{see also|List of nomadic peoples|Eurasian nomads|Eurasian Steppe|Nomadic empire}}
[[File:World in 200 BCE.png|thumb|330px|Overview map of the world in 200 BC:
{{legend|#800080|[[Sarmatians]], [[Saka]], [[Yuezhi]], [[Xiongnu]] and other nomadic pastoralists}}]]
[[File:Radzivill Chronicle Cumans.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Cuman people|Cuman]] nomads, [[Radziwiłł Chronicle]], 13th century.]]
[[File:Gurvger.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A [[yurt]] in front of the [[Gurvan Saikhan Uul|Gurvan Saikhan Mountains]]. Approximately 30% of [[Mongolia]]'s 3 million people are nomadic or semi-nomadic.]]
[[File:Saami Family 1900.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A Sámi family in Norway around 1900. [[Reindeer]] have been [[Herding|herded]] for centuries by several Arctic and Subarctic people including the [[Sami people|Sámi]] and the [[Nenets people|Nenets]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/7631678.stm|title=Your pictures: Ed Vallance|publisher=BBC News – In Pictures|access-date=29 April 2015|date=2008-09-23|archive-date=2021-03-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312202449/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_pictures/7631678.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

[[Pastoral nomads]] are nomads moving from pastures to pastures. Nomadic [[pastoralism]] is thought to have developed in three stages that accompanied [[population growth]] and an increase in the complexity of [[social organization]]. [[Karim Sadr]] has proposed the following stages:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dannyreviews.com/h/Nomadism.html|title=The Development of Nomadism in Ancient Northeast Africa Karim Sadr [Book Review]|last=Yee|first=Danny|date=1991|access-date=2018-02-01|archive-date=2021-03-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312202455/https://dannyreviews.com/h/Nomadism.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''Pastoralism:'''  This is a [[mixed economy]] with a [[symbiosis]] within the family.
* '''Agropastoralism:'''  This is when symbiosis is between segments or clans within an [[ethnic group]].
* '''True Nomadism:'''  This is when symbiosis is at the regional level, generally between specialised nomadic and agricultural populations.

The pastoralists are sedentary to a certain area, as they move between the permanent spring, summer, autumn and winter (or dry and wet season) pastures for their [[livestock]]. The nomads moved depending on the availability of resources.<ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/MEHBKNMD.html Nomads of the Middle East] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090428125713/http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/MEHBKNMD.html |date=2009-04-28 }}, David Zeidan, OM-IRC, 1995</ref>

===History===

====Origins====
Nomadic pastoralism seems to have developed first as a part of the [[secondary products revolution|secondary-products revolution]] proposed by [[Andrew Sherratt]], in which early [[Neolithic|pre-pottery Neolithic]] cultures that had used animals as live meat ("on the hoof") also began using animals for their secondary products, for example: [[milk]] and its associated [[dairy products]], [[wool]] and other animal hair, hides (and consequently [[leather]]), [[manure]] (for [[fuel]] and [[fertilizer]]), and traction.{{Citation needed|date=January 2018}}

The first nomadic pastoral society developed in the period from 8,500 to 6,500 BCE in the area of the southern [[Levant]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1= Ning|first1= Shi|last2= Dupont|first2= Lydie M.|date= June 1997|title= Vegetation and climatic history of southwest Africa: A marine palynological record of the last 300,000 years|journal=Vegetation History and Archaeobotany|volume= 6|issue= 2|pages= 117–131|doi= 10.1007/bf01261959|bibcode= 1997VegHA...6..117N|s2cid= 129710387|issn= 0939-6314}}</ref> There, during a period of increasing aridity, [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] (PPNB) cultures in the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]] were replaced by a nomadic, pastoral pottery-using culture, which seems to have been a cultural fusion between them and a newly-arrived [[Mesolithic]] people from Egypt (the [[Harifian]] culture), adopting their nomadic hunting lifestyle to the raising of stock.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{Cite web |url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/subsistence/sub_3.htm |title=Patterns of Subsistence: Pastoralism |access-date=2008-09-10 |archive-date=2016-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203223113/http://anthro.palomar.edu/subsistence/sub_3.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

This lifestyle quickly developed into what Jaris Yurins has called the circum-[[Arabs|Arabian]] nomadic pastoral techno-complex and is possibly associated with the appearance of [[Semitic languages]] in the region of the [[Ancient Near East]]. The rapid spread of such nomadic pastoralism was typical of such later developments as of the [[Yamnaya]] culture of the [[Eurasian nomads|horse and cattle nomads of the Eurasian steppe]] ({{circa}} 3300–2600 BCE), and of the [[Mongol]] spread in the later [[Middle Ages]].<ref name=autogenerated1 />

Yamnaya [[Western Steppe Herders|steppe pastoralists]] from the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]], who were among the first to master [[Equestrianism|horseback riding]], played a key role in [[Indo-European migrations]] and in the spread of [[Indo-European languages]] across Eurasia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Gibbons |first1= Ann |title= Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population |journal= Science |date= 21 February 2017 |url= https://www.science.org/content/article/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-population |access-date= 29 October 2022 |archive-date= 25 September 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220925154535/https://www.science.org/content/article/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-population |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Andrew |last=Curry |title=The first Europeans weren't who you might think |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature |work=National Geographic |date=August 2019 |access-date=2022-10-29 |archive-date=2023-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306235330/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/first-europeans-immigrants-genetic-testing-feature |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[Trekboer]]s in southern Africa adopted nomadism from the 17th century.<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Fouché
| first1 = Leo
| year = 1936
| chapter = V: Foundation of the Cape Colony, 1652–1708
| editor1-last = Walker
| editor1-first = Eric Anderson
| editor1-link = Eric A. Walker (historian)
| title = The Cambridge History of the British Empire
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ISg9AAAAIAAJ
| volume = VIII: South Africa, Rhodesia and the Protectorates
| location = Cambridge
| publisher = CUP Archive
| publication-date = 1963
| page = 136
| access-date = 2016-11-16
| quote = [...] [[Simon van der Stel|van der Stel]] recognised the roving tendency among the colonists and tried to arrest it. A proclamation of 1692 illustrated his fears: it stated that colonists were making a living by grazing cattle and bartering in the interior [...]. This seems clear proof that the ''trekboer'', as a distinct type, was coming into existence during the time of van der Stel. [...] Generation after generation of these hardy and self-reliant nomads pushed the frontiers of civilisation further into the wilderness.
}}
</ref>
Some elements of [[gaucho]] culture in colonial South America also re-invented nomadic lifestyles.<ref>{{cite book
 |last1             = Slatta
 |first1            = Richard W.
 |date              = 1 January 1992
 |title             = Gauchos and the Vanishing Frontier
 |url               = https://books.google.com/books?id=tWN1W5DHIvcC
 |edition           = reprint
 |publication-place = Lincoln
 |publisher         = University of Nebraska Press
 |page              = 189
 |isbn              = 9780803292154
 |access-date       = 23 April 2023
 |quote             = [...] the early nineteenth century witnessed 'the nomad ''gaucho'' of the colonial period converted into the loyal ''gaucho'' of the ''estancia''.'
 |archive-date      = 23 April 2023
 |archive-url       = https://web.archive.org/web/20230423055443/https://books.google.com/books?id=tWN1W5DHIvcC
 |url-status        = live
}}</ref>

====Increase in post-Soviet Central Asia====
One of the results of the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|break-up of the Soviet Union]] and the subsequent political independence and economic collapse of its [[Central Asian]] republics has been the resurgence of pastoral nomadism.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/sd/rodirect/ROan0009.htm Pastoral Livestock Development in Central Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100128220108/http://www.fao.org/sd/rodirect/ROan0009.htm |date=2010-01-28 }}, FAO Rural Development Division</ref> Taking the [[Kyrgyz people]] as a representative example, nomadism was the centre of their economy before Russian colonization at the turn of the 20th century, when they were settled into agricultural villages. The population became increasingly [[Urbanization|urbanized]] after World War II, but some people still take their herds of horses and cows to high pastures (''jailoo'') every summer, continuing a pattern of [[transhumance]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Since the 1990s, as the cash economy shrank, unemployed relatives were reabsorbed into family farms, and the importance of this form of nomadism has increased.{{Citation needed|date=January 2018}} The symbols of nomadism, specifically the crown of the grey felt tent known as the [[yurt]], appears on the national flag, emphasizing the central importance of nomadism in the genesis of the modern nation of [[Kyrgyzstan]].<ref>{{Citation|title=CONCLUSION|work=Speaking Soviet with an Accent|year=2012|pages=140–146|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vkh78.13|isbn=978-0822978091}}</ref>

====Sedentarization====
{{See also|Sedentism}}
From 1920 to 2008, the population of nomadic pastoral tribes slowly decreased from over a quarter of [[Iran]]'s population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bestirantravel.com/culture/history/nomads.html|title=Persian & Iranian Nomads at Best Iran Travel.com|access-date=29 April 2015|archive-date=20 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920130312/http://www.bestirantravel.com/culture/history/nomads.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Tribal pastures were nationalized during the 1960s. The National Commission of [[UNESCO]] registered the population of Iran at 21 million in 1963, of whom two million (9.5%) were nomads.<ref>{{cite journal|url=|title=Censuses of Pastoral Nomads and Some General Remarks about the Census of Nomadic Tribes of Iran in 1998 |journal=Nomadic Peoples|volume=7|issue=2|pages=24–35|access-date=|date=December 2003|last1=Moussavi-Nejad|first1=Ebrahim|doi=10.3167/082279403781826328}}</ref> Although the nomadic population of Iran has dramatically decreased in the 20th century, Iran still has one of the largest nomadic populations in the world, an estimated 1.5 million in a country of about 70 million.<ref>[https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2008-feb-18-ft-irannomads18-story.html Iran's nomads going extinct], Los Angeles Times, February 18, 2008</ref>

In [[Kazakhstan]] where the major agricultural activity was nomadic herding,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/worldmusic/view/page.basic/country/content.country/kazakhstan_672|title=National Geographic: Images of Animals, Nature, and Cultures|access-date=29 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090518101036/http://worldmusic.nationalgeographic.com/worldmusic/view/page.basic/country/content.country/kazakhstan_672|archive-date=18 May 2009|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union|forced collectivization]] under [[Joseph Stalin]]'s rule met with massive resistance and major losses and confiscation of livestock.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kazsociety.org.uk/events/2006/06/51.htm|title=Kazahstan Student Society in the United Kingdom|access-date=29 April 2015|archive-date=8 August 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808000026/http://www.kazsociety.org.uk/events/2006/06/51.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Livestock in Kazakhstan fell from 7 million cattle to 1.6 million and from 22 million sheep to 1.7 million. The resulting [[Soviet famine of 1932–1933|famine of 1931–1934]] caused some 1.5 million deaths: this represents more than 40% of the total [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] population at that time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.kz/heritagenet/kz/hn-english/history_en.htm|title=General information|access-date=29 April 2015|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304212415/http://www.unesco.kz/heritagenet/kz/hn-english/history_en.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Fulani herdsman.jpg|thumb|[[Fulani herdsmen|Fulani herdsman]] in [[Togo]]. Spread throughout West Africa, the [[Fula people|Fulani]] are the largest nomadic group in the world.]]
In the 1950s as well as the 1960s, large numbers of [[Bedouin]] throughout the Middle East started to leave the traditional, nomadic life to settle in the cities of the Middle East, especially as home ranges have shrunk and population levels have grown. Government policies in [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]], oil production in [[Libya]] and the [[Persian Gulf]], as well as a desire for improved standards of living, effectively led most Bedouin to become settled citizens of various nations, rather than stateless nomadic herders. A century ago, nomadic Bedouin still made up some 10% of the total [[Arab]] population. Today, they account for some 1% of the total.<ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/MEHBKPPL.html The Middle East People Groups and Their Distribution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126112213/http://www.angelfire.com/az/rescon/MEHBKPPL.html |date=2009-01-26 }}, Zeidan, David, OM-IRC, 1995</ref>

At independence in 1960, [[Mauritania]] was essentially a nomadic society. The great [[Sahel drought]]s of the early 1970s caused massive problems in a country where 85% of its inhabitants were nomadic herders. Today only 15% remain nomads.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/mauritania/60.htm Mauritania – Political Power in the Mid-1980s] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110921122851/http://countrystudies.us/mauritania/60.htm |date=2011-09-21 }}, U.S. Library of Congress Country Studies</ref>

As many as 2 million nomadic [[Kuchis]] wandered over [[Afghanistan]] in the years before the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet invasion]], and most experts agreed that by 2000 the number had fallen dramatically, perhaps by half. A severe [[drought]] had destroyed 80% of the livestock in some areas.<ref>[https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2000-jun-30-mn-46357-story.html "Severe Drought Driving Nomads From Desert"], ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', June 30, 2000</ref>

[[Niger]] experienced a serious [[2005–06 Niger food crisis|food crisis in 2005]] following erratic rainfall and [[desert locust]] invasions. Nomads such as the [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] and [[Fulani]], who make up about 20% of Niger's 12.9 million population, had been so badly hit by the Niger food crisis that their already fragile way of life is at risk.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4153804.stm Niger way of life 'under threat'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180202013520/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4153804.stm |date=2018-02-02 }}, BBC News, August 16, 2005</ref> Nomads in [[Mali]] were also affected.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4132326.stm Mali's nomads face famine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224054313/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4132326.stm |date=2021-02-24 }} [[BBC News]], August 9, 2005</ref> The Fulani of West Africa are the world's largest nomadic group.<ref>{{cite news |title=West Africa's Fulani nomads fight climate change to survive |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20191205-west-africa-s-fulani-nomads-fight-climate-change-to-survive |work=France 24 |date=5 December 2019}}</ref>

=== Lifestyle ===
[[File:Nomads in Badghis Province.jpg|thumb|Tents of [[Pashtuns|Pashtun]] nomads in [[Badghis Province]], [[Afghanistan]]. They migrate from region to region depending on the season.]]
Pala nomads living in [[Western Tibet]] have a diet that is unusual in that they consume very few vegetables and no fruit. The main staple of their diet is ''[[tsampa]]'' and they drink [[Tibetan cuisine|Tibetan]] style [[butter tea]]. Pala will eat heartier foods in the winter months to help keep warm. Some of the customary restrictions they explain as cultural saying only that ''drokha'' do not eat certain foods, even some that may be naturally abundant. Though they live near sources of [[fish as food|fish]] and [[fowl]] these do not play a significant role in their diet, and they do not eat [[carnivorous]] animals, [[rabbit]]s or the wild asses that are abundant in the environs, classifying the latter as [[horse]] due to their cloven hooves. Some families do not eat until after the morning milking, while others may have a light meal with butter tea and ''tsampa''. In the afternoon, after the morning milking, the families gather and share a communal meal of tea, ''tsampa'' and sometimes [[yogurt]]. During winter months the meal is more substantial and includes meat. [[Herder]]s will eat before leaving the camp and most do not eat again until they return to camp for the evening meal. The typical evening meal may include thin stew with ''tsampa'', animal fat and dried [[radish]]. Winter stew would include a lot of meat with either ''tsampa'' or boiled flour [[dumpling]]s.<ref name="goldstein">{{cite book |last1=Goldstein |first1=Mervyll |title=Nomads of Western Tibet: The Survival of a Way of Life |date=1990 |publisher=University of California Press |page=114 |isbn=978-0520072107 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=igQiDpD66pwC&pg=PA114}}</ref>

Nomadic diets in [[Kazakhstan]] have not changed much over centuries. The Kazakh nomad cuisine is simple and includes meat, salads, marinated vegetables and fried and baked [[bread]]s. [[Tea]] is served in bowls, possibly with sugar or [[milk]]. Milk and other [[dairy]] products, like [[cheese]] and [[yogurt]], are especially important. ''[[Kumys]]'' is a drink of [[fermentation|fermented]] milk. [[Wrestling]] is a popular sport, but the nomadic people do not have much time for leisure. Horse riding is a valued skill in their culture.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pavlovic |first1=Zoran |title=Kazakhstan |date=2003 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |page=57 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uR_x9HdQra0C&pg=PA57|isbn=978-1438105192 }}</ref>
[[File:Nomadic Clan on the Move (23380103871).jpg|thumb|Movement of nomads in [[Chad]]]]

=== Perception ===
Ann Marie Kroll Lerner states that the pastoral nomads were viewed as "invading, destructive, and altogether antithetical to civilizing, sedentary societies" during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. According to Lerner, they are rarely accredited as "a civilizing force".<ref>{{Cite thesis |type=Ph.D. |title=Iron Age Nomads of the Urals: Interpreting Sauro–Sarmatian and Sargat Identities |year=2006 |page=34 |publisher=Department of Anthropology, [[Michigan State University]] |section=History of Nomad Studies in Anthropology: Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries |first=Ann Marie Kroll |last=Lerner |oclc=1084037447 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=256YglLwBkUC&q=%22History+of+Nomad+Studies+in+Anthropology%22}}</ref>

[[Allan Hill]] and Sara Randall observe that western authors have looked for "romance and mystery, as well as the repository of laudable characteristics believed lost in the West, such as independence, stoicism in the face of physical adversity, and a strong sense of loyalty to family and to tribe" in nomadic pastoralist societies. Hill and Randall observe that nomadic pastoralists are stereotypically seen by the settled populace in Africa and [[Middle East]] as "aimless wanderers, immoral, promiscuous and disease-ridden" peoples. According to Hill and Randall, both of these perceptions "misrepresent the reality".<ref>{{cite book |title=Population, Health and Nutrition in the Sahel: Issues in the Welfare of Selected West African Communities |year=2012 |pages=21–40 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |editor-first=Allan G. |editor-last=Hill |chapter=Issues in the Study of the Demography of Sahelian Pastoralists and Agro–Pastoralists |first1=Allan G. |last1=Hill |first2=Sara |last2=Randall |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_T_O_8XmdQC&pg=PA21 |isbn=978-1136882845}}</ref>